
GRAMMAR 



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AN ADVANCED 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

WITH EXERCISES 



BY 

GEOEGE LYMAN KITTEEDGE 
M 

6URNEY PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN 
HARVARD UNIVERSITY 

AND 

FEANK EDGAE FAELEY 

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PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN 
WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY 



GINN AND COMPANY 

BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 
ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO 



TC//.I 
.Kiz. 



COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY GEORGE LYMAN KITTREDGE 

AND FRANK EDGAR FARLEY 

ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 

424.2 



^ 






LC Control Number 




tmp96 027991 



GINN AND COMPANY • PRO- 
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 



PREFACE 



This grammar is intended for students who have already 
received instruction in the rudiments. Still, every such text- 
book must begin at the beginning. Part One, therefore, which 
occupies pp. 1~24, gives a succinct treatment of the Parts of 
Speech in the Sentence and of their substitutes, the Phrase 
and the Clause, concluding with a Summary of Definitions. 
Thus it clears the way for what follows, and may be utilized 
as a review, if the student needs to refresh his memory. 

Part Two deals specifically and fully with Inflections and 
Syntax (pp. 25-182). It includes also a chapter on the use of 
subordinate clauses as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (pp. 157- 
162), as well as a chapter in which such clauses are logically 
classified in accordance with their particular offices in the 
expression of thought (pp. 163-182). 

Part Three (pp. 183-226) develops the subject of Analysis 
in its natural order, first explaining how sentences are put 
together, and then illustrating the process by which they may 
be resolved into their constituent parts. Modifiers and Com- 
plements are classified, and the so-called Independent Elements 
are discussed. There is added a special chapter on Combina- 
tions of Clauses, in which the grammatical and logical relations 
of coordination and subordination are set forth, and their func- 
tions in the effective use of language are considered. This 
portion of the book, it is hoped, will be especially useful to 
students of English composition. 

The Appendix furnishes lists of verbs, tables of conjuga- 
tion, rules for capitals and marks of punctuation, a summary 
of important rules of syntax, and a brief history of the English 
language. 

iii 



iv PREFACE 

The Exercises (pp. 227-290) are collected at the end of the 
text, so as not to break continuity. Eeferences prefixed to 
each, as well as page-numbers in the Table of Contents, enable 
the teacher to attach them, at will, to the topics which they 
concern. The passages for parsing, analysis, etc., have been 
carefully selected from a wide range of eminent British and 
American writers. The name of the author is often appended 
to the quotation, when the passage is particularly noteworthy 
either for its contents or its form. In most cases, however, this 
has not been done ; but the student may always feel confident 
that he is occupying himself with specimens of English as ac- 
tually composed by distinguished authors. The constructive 
exercises call particular attention to those matters in which 
error is especially prevalent. 

An advanced grammar must aim to be serviceable in two 
ways. It should afford the means for continuous and system- 
atic study of the subject or of any part of it ; and it should also 
be useful for reference in connection with the study of compo- 
sition and of literature. With this latter end in view, many 
notes and observations have been included, in smaller type, 
to show the nature and development of the various forms and 
constructions, and to point out differences between the usage of 
to-day and that which the student observes in Shakspere and 
other English classics. The fulness of the index makes it easy 
to find anything that the volume contains. 

In accordance with the desire of many teachers, certain 
topics of importance have been treated with unusual thorough- 
ness. Among these may be mentioned the uses of shall and 
will y should and would, the infinitive and the infinitive clause, 
conditional sentences, indirect discourse, and the combination 
of clauses in sentences of different kinds. 

The authors are indebted to several teachers for suggestions 
and criticism. Particular acknowledgment is due to Mr. Theo- 
dore C. Mitchill, of the Jamaica High School, New York, and 
Mr. C. L. Hooper, of the Chicago Normal School. 



CONTENTS 



[The numbers in the first column refer to the pages of the text ; those in the 
second column to the pages of the Exercises.] 

INTRODUCTION EXER 

TEXT CISES 

Language and Grammar xi 

Grammar and Usage xv 

Summary of General Principles xvii 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

PART ONE -THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE 
SENTENCE 

The Sentence — Subject and Predicate 1 227 

Kinds of Sentences 2 227 

The Eight Parts of Speech Defined 3 228 

The Same Word as Different Parts of Speech 9 229 

Infinitives and Participles 11 229 

Comparative Importance of the Parts of Speech 13 

Simple and Complete Subject and Predicate 14 230 

Compound Subject and Predicate 15 230 

Substitutes for the Parts of Speech 16 231 

Phrases — Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverbial 16 231 

Clauses — Independent and Subordinate 16 232 

Compound and Complex Sentences 17 232 

Compound Complex Sentences 18 232 

Clauses as Parts of Speech 19 232 

Summary of Definitions 21 

PART TWO — INFLECTION AND SYNTAX 
CHAPTER I — INFLECTION 

Inflection in General 25 

Summary of Inflections , . 26 



vi CONTENTS 

CHAPTEK II — NOUNS TEXT exer- 

cises 

Classification — Common Nouns and Proper Nouns 27 233 

Special Classes — Abstract, Collective, Compound 29 234 

Inflection of Nouns 30 235 

Gender 31 235 

Number 34 235 

Person 39 238 

Case 40 237 

Nominative Case ..." 41 237 

Possessive Case .43 238 

Objective Case 47 239 

Parsing of Nouns 54 240 

CHAPTER III — PRONOUNS 

Personal Pronouns 55 241 

Gender and Number of Personal Pronouns 56 241 

Case of Personal Pronouns 57 241 

The Self -Pronouns (Compound Personal Pronouns) 60 241 

Adjective Pronouns — Demonstratives 62 243 

Adjective Pronouns — Indefinites 64 243 

Relative Pronouns 66 244 

The Relative Pronoun What 71 246 

Compound Relative Pronouns 72 246 

Interrogative Pronouns 73 246 

Parsing of Pronouns 74 247 

CHAPTER IV— ADJECTIVES 

Classification of Adjectives 75 248 

Adjectives — the Articles 77 248 

Comparison of Adjectives 79 249 

Irregular Comparison 81 249 

CHAPTER V — ADVERBS 

Classification of Adverbs 83 250 

Relative and Interrogative Adverbs 86 251 

Comparison of Adverbs 87 252 

Use of the Comparative and Superlative 88 252 

Numerals — Adjectives, Nouns, Adverbs 89 252 



CONTENTS vii 

CHAPTER VI — VERBS „,, , vrp exer- 

1EXT CISES 

Classification of Verbs 91 253 

Auxiliary Verbs — Verb-Phrases 91 253 

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 92 253 

Copulative Verbs 93 253 

Inflection of Verbs 94 254 

Tense of Verbs 94 254 

Present and Past Tenses 94 254 

Weak (Regular) and Strong (Irregular) Verbs 95 254 

Person and Number 97 254 

The Personal Endings 97 254 

Conjugation of the Present and the Past 98 254 

Special Rules of Number and Person 100 254 

The Future Tense — Shall and Will 102 256 

Complete or Compound Tenses 106 258 

Voice — Active and Passive 107 258 

Conjugation of the Six Tenses 108 258 

Use of the Passive Voice 110 258 

Progressive Verb-Phrases 113 260 

Emphatic Verb-Phrases 114 260 

Mood of Verbs 115 261 

Indicative Mood 115 261 

Imperative Mood 116 261 

Subjunctive Mood — Eorms 118 261 

Uses of the Subjunctive 119 261 

Potential Verb-Phrases (Modal Auxiliaries) 124 262 

Special Rules for Should and Would 127 264 

The Infinitive 132 266 

The Infinitive as a Noun 134 266 

The Infinitive as a Modifier '±36 266 

The Infinitive Clause 137 267 

Participles — Eorms and Constructions 140 268 

Nominative Absolute 144 269 

Verbal Nouns in -ing (Participial Nouns) 145 269 



CHAPTER VII — PREPOSITIONS 

List of Prepositions . 148 270 

Special Uses of Prepositions 149 270 



viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VIII — CONJUNCTIONS _,, exer 

TEXT CISES 

Coordinate (or Coordinating) Conjunctions 151 270 

Subordinate (or Subordinating) Conjunctions 153 270 

Correlative Conjunctions 153 270 

CHAPTER IX — INTERJECTIONS 

Interjections 155 272 

Exclamatory Expressions 155 272 

CHAPTER X— CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH 

Clauses as Parts of Speech 157 272 

Adjective Clauses 157 272 

Adverbial Clauses 158 272 

Noun (or Substantive) Clauses 159 272 

CHAPTER XI — THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 

Clauses of Place and Time 163 272 

Causal Clauses 164 272 

Concessive Clauses 164 272 

Clauses of Purpose and Result 166 274 

Conditional Sentences 167 274 

Forms of Conditions 169 274 

Present and Past Conditions 170 274 

Future Conditions . . . ' 171 274 

Clauses of Comparison 173 275 

Indirect Discourse 173 277 

Shall and Will, Should and Would in Indirect Discourse . . 177 278 

Indirect Questions 179 280 

Shall and Will, Should and Would in Indirect Questions . . 182 281 

PART THREE -ANALYSIS 

CHAPTER I — THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES 

Analysis — the Elements 183 282 

Simple Sentences 184 282 

Compound Sentences ..,..,,,,,, J85 282 



CONTENTS ix 

TBXT 5E" 

Complex Sentences 186 282 

Compound and Complex Clauses 186 287 

Compound Complex Sentences 187 283 

CHAPTER II — ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 

Simple Sentences 188 283 

Compound Sentences 188 283 

Complex Sentences 189 283 

Compound Complex Sentences 190 283 

CHAPTER III — MODIFIERS 

Modifiers in General 191 283 

Modifiers of the Subject 192 283 

Modifiers of the Predicate 196 284 

CHAPTER IV — COMPLEMENTS 

Use of Complements 200 285 

The Direct Object 201 285 

The Predicate Objective 202 285 

The Predicate Nominative 202 285 

The Predicate Adjective 203 285 

CHAPTER V— MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS AND OF 
MODIFIERS 

Modifiers of Complements 205 286 

Modifiers of Other Modifiers 207 286 

CHAPTER VI — INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 

Four Kinds of Independent Elements 209 286 

Parenthetical Expressions 209 286 

CHAPTER VII — COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES 

General Principles 210 287 

Coordination and Subordination 210 287 

Clauses — Simple, Compound, Complex 211 287 



x CONTENTS 

TEXT 



JEXER" 
CISES 



Simple Sentences with Compound Subject or Predicate . . 212 287 

Compound and Complex Sentences 213 287 

Compound Complex Sentences 215 287 

Varieties of the Complex Sentence 216 287 

Special Complications in Complex Sentences 220 288 

Special Complications in Compound Complex Sentences . . 222 288 

CHAPTER VIII — ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 

Ellipsis in Clauses and Sentences 224 288 

Varieties of Ellipsis 225 288 

Examples of Elliptical Constructions 226 288 

EXERCISES 

PAGE 

Exercises on Part One 227 

Exercises on Part Two 233 

Exercises on Part Three 282 

APPENDIX 

Lists of Verbs 291 

Conjugation of the Verb to be 300 

Conjugation of the Verb to strike 301 

Use of Capital Letters 305 

Rules of Punctuation 306 

Rules of Syntax 311 

The English Language 316 

Index 321 



INTRODUCTION 

LANGUAGE AND GEAMMAE 

I. The Nature of Language 

Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken 
or written words. 

The English word language comes (through the French 
langue) from the Latin lingua, " the tongue." But the tongue 
is not the only organ used in speaking. The lips, the teeth, 
the roof of the mouth, the soft palate (or uvula), the nose, and 
the vocal chords all help to produce the sounds of which lan- 
guage consists. These various organs make up one delicate and 
complicated piece of mechanism upon which the breath of the 
speaker acts like that of a musician upon a clarinet or other 
wind instrument. 

Spoken language, then, is composed of a great variety of 
sounds made with the vocal organs. A word may consist of 
one sound (as Ah ! or or 7), but most words consist of two 
or more different sounds (as go, see, try, finish). Long or short, 
however, a word is merely a sign made to express thought. 

Thought may be imperfectly expressed by signs made with 
the head, the hands, etc. Thus, if I grasp a person's arm and 
point to a dog, he may understand me to ask, " Do you see that 
dog ? " And his nod in reply may stand for " Yes, I see him." 
But any dialogue carried on in this way must be both fragmen- 
tary and uncertain. To express our thoughts fully, freely, and 
accurately, we must use words, — that is, signs made with the 
voice. Such voice-signs have had meanings associated with 
them by custom or tradition, so that their sense is at once 

xi 



xii INTBODUCTION 

understood by all. Their advantage is twofold : they are far 
more numerous and varied than other signs ; and the meanings 
attached to them are much more definite than those of nods 
and gestures. 

Written words are signs made with the pen to represent and 
recall to the mind the spoken words (or voice-signs). Written 
language (that is, composition) must, of necessity, be somewhat 
fuller than spoken language, as well as more formal and exact. 
For the reader's understanding is not assisted by the tones of 
the voice, the changing expressions of the face, and the lively 
gestures, which help to make spoken language intelligible. 

Most words are the signs of definite ideas. Thus, Charles, 
captain, cat, mouse, bread, stone, cup, ink, call up images or 
pictures of persons or things ; strike, dive, climb, dismount, 
express particular kinds of action; green, blue, careless, rocky, 
triangular, muscular, enable us to describe objects with accu- 
racy. Even general terms like goodness, truth, courage, coward- 
ice, generosity, have sufficiently precise meanings, for they name 
qualities, or traits of character, with which everybody is familiar. 

By the use of such words, even when not combined in groups, 
we can express our thoughts much more satisfactorily than by 
mere gestures. The utterance of the single word w Charles ! " 
may signify : w Hullo, Charles ! are you here ? I am surprised 
to see you." w Bread ! " may suggest to the hearer ; w Give me 
bread ! I am very hungry." " Courage ! " may be almost equiv- 
alent to, "Don't be down-hearted! Your troubles will soon 
be over." 

Language, however, is not confined to the utterance of sin- 
gle words. To express our thoughts we must put words to- 
gether, — we must combine them into groups ; and such groups 
have settled meanings (just as words have), established (like 
the meanings of single words) by the customs or habits of the 
particular language that we are speaking or writing. Further, 
these groups are not thrown together haphazard. We must con- 
struct them in accordance with certain fixed rules. Otherwise 



THE NATUKE OF LANGUAGE xiii 

we shall fail to express ourselves clearly and acceptably, and 
we may even succeed in saying the opposite of what we mean. 

In constructing these groups (which we call phrases, clauses, 
and sentences) we have the aid of a large number of short words 
like and, if, by, to, in, is, was, which are very different from 
the definite and picturesque words that we have just examined. 
They do not call up distinct images in the mind, and we should 
find it hard to define any of them. Yet their importance in 
the expression of thought is clear ; for they serve to join other 
words together, and to show their relation to each other in 
those groups which make up connected speech. 

Thus, " box heavy " conveys some meaning ; but w The box 
is heavy" is a clear and definite statement. The shows that 
some particular box is meant, and is enables us to make an 
assertion about it. And, in " Charles and John are my brothers," 
indicates that Charles and John are closely connected in my 
thought, and that what I say of one applies also to the other. 
If, in " If Charles comes, I shall be glad to see him," connects 
two statements, and shows that one of them is a mere supposi- 
tion (for Charles may or may not come). 

In grouping words, our language has three different ways 
of indicating their relations : (1) the forms of the words them- 
selves ; (2) their order ; (3) the use of little words like and, if, 
is, etc. 

I. Change of form. Words may change their form. Thus 
the word boy becomes boys when more than one is meant ; kill 
becomes killed when past time is referred to ; was becomes 
were when we are speaking of two or more persons or things ; 
fast becomes faster when a higher degree of speed is indicated. 
Such change of form is called inflection, and the word is said 
to be inflected. 

Inflection is an important means of showing the relations of 
words in connected speech. In "Henry's racket weighs four- 
teen ounces," the form Henry's shows at once the relation 
between Henry and the racket, — namely, that Henry owns or 



xiv INTBODUCTION 

possesses it. The word Henry, then, may change its form to 
Henry's to indicate ownership or possession. 

II. Order of words. In w John struck Charles," the way in 
which the words are arranged shows who it was that struck, 
and who received the blow. Change the order of words to 
"Charles struck John," and the meaning is reversed. It is, 
then, the order that shows the relation of John to struck, and 
of struck to Charles. 

III. Use of other words. Compare the two sentences : 

The train from Boston has just arrived. 
The train for Boston has just arrived. 

Here from and for show the relation between the train and 
Boston. w The Boston train " might mean either the train from 
Boston or the train for Boston. By using from or for we make 
the sense unmistakable. 

Two matters, then, are of vital importance in language, — 
the forms of words, and the relations of words. The science 
which treats of these two matters is called grammar. 

Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change 
in its meaning. 

The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence 
is called its construction. 

Grammar is the science which treats of the^f orms and the constructions 
of words. 

Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the construc- 
tions of words. 

Grammar, then, may be said to concern itself with two main 
subjects, — inflection and syntax. 

English belongs to a family of languages — the Indo-European 
Family 1 — which is rich in forms of inflection. This richness 
may be seen in other members of the family, — such as Greek 
or Latin. The Latin word homo, w man," for example, has 

1 For a brief history of the English language, see p. 316. 



GEAMMAR AND USAGE xv 

eight different inflectional forms, — homo, w a man " ; hominls, 
R of a man " ; homini, w to a man," and so on. Thus, in Latin, 
the grammatical construction of a word is, in general, shown 
by that particular inflectional ending (or termination) which 
it has in any particular sentence. In the Anglo-Saxon period, 1 
English was likewise well furnished with such inflectional 
endings, though not so abundantly as Latin. Many of these, 
however, had disappeared by Chaucer's time (1340-1400), and 
still others have since been lost, so that modern English is one 
of the least inflected of languages. Such losses are not to be 
lamented. By due attention to the order of words, and by 
using of, to, for, from, in, and the like, we can express all the 
relations denoted by the ancient inflections. The gain in sim- 
plicity is enormous. 

II. Grammar and Usage 

Since language is the expression of thought, the rules of 
grammar agree, in the main, with the laws of thought. In 
other words, grammar is usually logical, — that is, its rules 
accord, in general, with the principles of logic, which is the 
science of exact reasoning. 

The rules of grammar, however, do not derive their authority 
from logic, but from good usage, — that is, from the customs 
or habits followed by educated speakers and writers. These 
customs, of course, differ among different nations, and every 
language has therefore its own stock of peculiar constructions 
or turns of expression. Such peculiarities are called idioms. 

Thus, in English we say, " It is I " ; but in French the idiom 
is w C'est moi," which corresponds to w It is me." Many care- 
less speakers of English follow the French idiom in this par- 
ticular, but their practice has not yet come to be the accepted 
usage. Hence, though "C'est moi" is correct in French, we 
must still regard w It is me " as ungrammatical in English. It 

i Compare pp. 316-317. 



xvi ESTTEODUCTION 

would, however, become correct if it should ever be adopted 
by the great majority of educated persons. 

Grammar does not enact laws for the conduct of speech. Its 
business is to ascertain and set forth those customs of language 
which have the sanction of good usage. If good usage changes, 
the rules of grammar must change. If two forms or construc- 
tions are in good use, the grammarian must admit them both. 
Occasionally, also, there is room for difference of opinion. 
These facts, however, do not lessen the authority of grammar 
in the case of any cultivated language. For in such a language 
usage is so well settled in almost every particular as to enable 
the grammarian to say positively what is right and what is 
wrong. Even in matters of divided usage, it is seldom difficult 
to determine which of two forms or constructions is preferred 
by careful writers. 

Every language has two standards of usage, — the colloquial 
and the literary. By w colloquial language/' we mean the lan- 
guage of conversation ; by " literary language," that employed 
in literary composition. Everyday colloquial English admits 
many words, forms, phrases, and constructions that would be 
out of place in a dignified essay. On the other hand, it is an 
error in taste to be always "talking like a book." Unpractised 
speakers and writers should, however, be conservative. They 
should avoid, even in informal talk, any word or expression 
that is of doubtful propriety. Only those who know what they 
are about, can venture to take liberties. It is quite possible to 
be correct without being stilted or affected. 1 

Every living language is constantly changing. Words, forms, 
and constructions become obsolete (that is, go out of use) and 
others take their places. Consequently, one often notes in the 
older English classics, methods of expression which, though 
formerly correct, are ungrammatical now. Here a twofold 

1 In this book, well-established colloquial idioms or constructions are men- 
tioned from time to time, but always with a note as to their actual status in 
the language. 



SUMMAEY OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES xvii 

caution is necessary. On the one hand, we must not criticise 
Shakspere or Chaucer for using the English of his own time ; 
but, on the other hand, we must not try to defend our own 
errors by appealing to ancient usage. 

Examples of constructions once in good use, but no longer admissible, 
are: "the best of the two" (for "the better of the two") ; "the most 
unkindest cut of all " ; " There 's two or three of us " (for there are) ; "I 
have forgot the map " (for forgotten) ; " Every one of these letters are in 
my name " (for is) ; "I think it be " (for is). 

The language of poetry admits many old words, forms, and 
constructions that are no longer used in ordinary prose. These 
are called archaisms (that is, ancient expressions). Among the 
commonest archaisms are thou, ye, hath, thinkest, doth. Such 
forms are also common in prose, in what is known as the 
solemn style, which is modelled, in great part, on the language 
of the Bible. 1 

In general, it should be remembered that the style which 
one uses should be appropriate, — that is, it should fit the occa- 
sion. A short story and a scientific exposition will differ in 
style ; a familiar letter will naturally shun the formalities of 
business or legal correspondence. Good style is not a necessary 
result of grammatical correctness, but without such correctness 
it is, of course, impossible. 



SUMMARY OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES 

1. Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or 
written words. 

2. Words are the signs of ideas. 

Spoken words are signs made with the vocal organs ; written 
words are signs made with the pen to represent the spoken words. 

1 In this book, several old forms and constructions which the student is 
constantly encountering in the English classics are treated in their proper 
places, — always with an indication of their difference from the modern 
standard. 



xviii INTRODUCTION 

The meanings of these signs are settled by custom or tradition in 
each language. 

3. Most words are the signs of definite ideas : as, — Charles, cap- 
tain, cat, strike, dive, climb, triangular, careless. 

Other words, of less definite meaning, serve to connect the more 
definite words and to show their relations to each other in connected 
speech. 

4. In the expression of thought, words are combined into groups 
called phrases, clauses, and sentences. 

5. The relation in which a word stands to other words in the 
sentence is called its construction. 

The construction of English words is shown in three ways : (1) by 
their form ; (2) by their order ; (3) by the use of other words like 
to, from, is, etc. 

6. Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some 
change in its meaning : as, — boy, boy's ; man, men ; drink, drank. 

7. Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the 
constructions of words. 

Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the con- 
structions of words. 

8. The rules of grammar derive their authority from good usage, 
— that is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers 
and writers. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

PAKT ONE 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN 

THE SENTENCE 



Summary. The Sentence: Subject and Predicate; Kinds of Sentences. 
— Use of words in the Sentence: the Eight Parts of Speech; Infinitives 
and Participles. — Comparative Importance of the Parts of Speech in the Sen- 
tence : the Subject Noun (or Simple Subject) ; the Predicate Verb (or Simple 
Predicate) ; Compound Subject and Predicate. — Substitutes for the Parts of 
Speech: Phrases; Clauses; Compound and Complex Sentences. 



THE SENTENCE 

1. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete 
thought. 

Fire burns. 
Wolves howl. 
Rain is falling. 
Charles is courageous. 
Patient effort removes mountains. 
London is the largest city in the world. 
A man who respects himself should never condescend 
to use slovenly language. 

Some of these sentences are short, expressing a very simple 
thought; others are comparatively long, because the thought 
is more complicated and therefore requires more words for its 
expression. But every one of them, whether short or long, is 
complete in itself. It comes to a definite end, and is followed 
by a full pause. 

1 



2 THE SENTENCE 

2. Every sentence, whether short or long, consists of two 
parts, — a subject and a predicate. 

The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that 
is spoken of ; the predicate is that which is said of the subject. 

Thus, in the first example in § 1, the subject is ./ire and the predicate 
is burns. In the third, the subject is rain ; the predicate, is falling. In 
the last, the subject is a man who respects himself; the predicate, should 
never condescend to use slovenly language. 

Either the subject or the predicate may consist of a single 
word or of a number of words. But neither the subject by 
itself nor the predicate by itself, however extended, is a sen- 
tence. The mere mention of a thing {fire) does not express a 
complete thought. Neither does a mere assertion (burns), if 
we neglect to mention the person or thing about which the 
assertion is made. Thus it appears that both a subject and a 
predicate are necessary to make a sentence. 

3. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or ex- 
clamatory. 

1. A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact. 

Dickens wrote " David Copperfield." 
The army approached the city. 

2. An interrogative sentence asks a question. 

Who is that officer ? 

Does Arthur Moore live here ? 

3. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request. 

Open the window. 

Pronounce the vowels more distinctly. 

4. An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other 
emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry. 

How calm the sea is ! 

What a noise the engine makes ! 



THE PAKTS OF SPEECH 3 

A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence is 
also exclamatory, if it is uttered in an intense or excited tone 
of voice. 

4. In imperative sentences, the subject (thou or you) is 
almost always omitted, because it is understood by both speaker 
and hearer without being expressed. 

Such omitted words, which are present (in idea) to the minds of both 
speaker and hearer, are said to be "understood." Thus, in "Open the win- 
dow," the subject is "you (understood)." If expressed, the subject would be 
emphatic : as, — " Tow open the window." 

5. The subject of a sentence commonly precedes the predi- 
cate, but sometimes the predicate precedes. 

Here comes Tom. 
Next came Edward. 
Over went the carriage. 

A sentence in which the predicate precedes the subject is 
said to be in the inverted order. This order is especially common 
in interrogative sentences. 

Where is your boat ? 

When was your last birthday ? 

Whither wander you ? — Shakspere. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

6. If we examine the words in any sentence, we observe 
that they have different tasks or duties to perform in the 
expression of thought. 

Savage beasts roamed through the forest. 

In this sentence, beasts and forest are the names of objects ; 
roamed asserts action, telling us what the beasts did; savage 
describes the beasts ; through shows the relation in thought be- 
tween forest and roamed; the limits the meaning of forest, 
showing that one particular forest is meant. Thus each of 
these words has its special office (or function) in the sentence. 



4 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 

7. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into 
eight classes called parts of speech, — namely, nouns, pronouns, adjec- 
tives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. 

I. NOUNS 

8. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. 

Examples : Lincoln, William, Elizabeth, sister, engineer, Chicago, 
island, shelf, star, window, happiness, anger, sidewalk, courage, loss, 
song. 

n. PRONOUNS 

9. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a per- 
son, place, or thing without naming it. 

In "I am ready," the pronoun J is a convenient substitute for the 
speaker's name. In " You have forgotten your umbrella," the pronouns 
you and your designate the person to whom one is speaking. 

Other pronouns are: he, his, him; she, hers, her; it, Us; this, that; 
who, whose, whom, which; myself, yourself, himself, themselves. 

Since pronouns stand for nouns, they enable us to talk about 
a person, place, or thing without constantly repeating the 
name. 

10. Nouns and pronouns are called substantives. 

Nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use. The dif- 
ference between them is merely that the noun designates a 
person, place, or thing by naming it, and that the pronoun 
designates, but does not name. Hence it is convenient to have a 
general term (substantive) to include both these parts of speech. 

1 1 . The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent. 

Frank introduced the boys to his father. [Frank is the antecedent of 
the pronoun his.] 

Eleanor is visiting her aunt. 

The book has lost its cover. 

The trappers sat round their camp fire. 

Washington and Franklin served their country in different ways. 
[Their has two antecedents, connected by and.] 



ADJECTIVES 5 

III. ADJECTIVES 

12. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive. 1 

This it usually does by indicating some quality. 

An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or 
limits. 

13. An adjective limits a substantive by restricting the 
range of its meaning. 

The noun box, for example, includes a great variety of objects. If we 
say wooden box, we exclude boxes of metal, of paper, etc. If we use a 
second adjective (small) and a third (square), we limit the size and the 
shape of the box. 

Most adjectives (like wooden, square, and small) describe as 
well as limit. Such words are called descriptive adjectives. 

We may, however, limit the noun box to a single specimen 
by means of the adjective this or that or the, which does not 
describe, but simply points out, or designates. Such words are 
called definitive adjectives. 2 

IV. VERBS 

14. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) 
concerning a person, place, or thing. 3 

The wind blows. Her jewels sparkled. 

The horses ran. Tom climbed a tree. 

The fire blazed. The dynamite exploded. 

Some verbs express state or condition rather than action. 

The treaty still exists. 

The book lies on the table. 

Near the church stood an elm. 

My aunt suffers much from headache. 

1 In the technical language of grammar an adjective is said to describe a 
substantive when it describes the object which the substantive denotes. 

2 Definitive adjectives are often called limiting adjectives. All adjectives, 
however, limit, even those that also describe. 

3 The usual brief definition of a verb is, " A verb is a word which asserts." 
But this definition in strictness applies only to verbs in declarative sentences. 



6 YEEBS 

15. A group of words may be needed, instead of a single 
verb, to make an assertion. 

A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase. 

You will see. 

The tree has fallen. 

We might have invited her. 

Our driver has been discharged. 

16. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are 
called auxiliary (that is, "aiding") verbs, because they help 
other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind. 

Thus, in "You will see," the auxiliary verb will helps see to express 
future action ; in ff We might have invited her," the auxiliaries might and 
have help invited to express action that was possible in past time. 

The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can, 
must, might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do, 
did. Their forms and uses will be studied in connection with 
the inflection of verbs. 

The auxiliary verb regularly comes first in a verb-phrase, 
and may be separated from the rest of it by some other word 

or words. 

Where was Washington born f 

The boat was slowly but steadily approaching. 

17. Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may 
be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in 
the predicate describe or define the subject. 

1. Gold is a metal. 

2. Charles is my friend's name. 

3. The colors of this butterfly are brilliant. 

4. Iron becomes red in the fire. 

5. Our condition seemed desperate. 

6. Bertram proved a good friend in this emergency. 

7. My soul grows sad with troubles. — Shakspere. 

In the first sentence, the verb is not only makes an assertion, 
but it also connects the rest of the predicate (a metal) with the 



ADVEKBS 7 

subject (gold) in such a way that a metal serves as a descrip- 
tion or definition of gold. 

In sentences 4-7, becomes, seemed, proved, and grows are 
similarly used. 

In such sentences is and other verbs that are used for the 
same purpose are called copulative (that is, "joining") verbs. 

Is in this use is often called the copula, that is, the " joiner" or "link." 

The forms of the verb is are very irregular. Among the 
commonest are : am, is, are, was, were, and the verb-phrases 
has been, have been, had been, shall be, will be. 1 

V. ADVERBS 

18. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or 
another adverb. 

To modify a word is to change or affect its meaning in some way. 
Thus in ff The river fell rapidly" the adverb rapidly modifies the verb 
fell by showing how the falling took place. In " I am never late," ff This 
is absolutely true," "That is too bad," the italicized words are adverbs 
modifying adjectives ; in f? He came very often," f r He spoke almost hope- 
fully," "The river fell too rapidly," they are adverbs modifying other 
adverbs. 

Most adverbs answer the question M How ? " w When ? " 
w Where ? " or w To what degree or extent ? " 

19. Observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same 
way in which adjectives modify nouns. 

Adjectives Adverbs 

A bright fire burned. The fire burned brightly. 

A fierce wind blew. The wind blew fiercely. 

A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of 
another word is called a modifier. 

Adjectives and adverbs, then, are both modifiers. Adjectives 

modify substantives ; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or 

other adverbs. 

1 For full inflection see pp. 300-301. 



PREPOSITIONS 



VI. PREPOSITIONS 

20. A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its 
relation to some other word in the sentence. 

The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object. 

A preposition is said to govern its object. 

In fr The surface of the water glistened," of makes it clear that sur- 
face belongs with water. In "Philip is on the river," on shows Philip's 
position with respect to the river. In, or near, or beyond would have 
indicated a different relation. Water is the object of the preposition of, 
and river is the object of the preposition on. 

21. A preposition often has more than one object. 

Over hill and dale he ran. 

He was filled with shame and despair. 

VII. CONJUNCTIONS 

22. A conjunction connects words or groups of words. 

A conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object, 
and in indicating a less definite relation between the words 
which it connects. 

In "Time and tide wait for no man," ff The parcel was small but 
heavy," ff He wore a kind of doublet or jacket," the conjunctions and, 
but, or, connect single words, — time with tide, small with heavy, doublet 
with jacket. In ff Do not go ifjon are afraid," ff I came because you sent 
for me," "Take my key, but do not lose it," fr Sweep the floor and dust 
the furniture," each conjunction connects the entire group of words 
preceding it with the entire group following it. 

VHI. INTERJECTIONS 

23. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing 
surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling. 

Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with 
the groups of words in which they stand ; hence their name, 
which means "thrown in." 

Examples : Oh! I forgot. Ah, how I miss you ! Bravo ! Alas ! 



DIFFERENT PAETS OF SPEECH 9 

THE SAME WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH 

24. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part 
of speech it belongs. 

The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes 
another. 

Words of entirely separate origin, meaning, and use some- 
times look and sound alike : as in w The minstrel sang a 
plaintive lay" and "He lay on the ground." But the follow- 
ing examples (§ 25) show that the same word may have more 
than one kind of grammatical office (or function). It is the 
meaning which we give to a word in the sentence that determines 
its classification as a part of speech. 

25. The chief classes of words thus variously used are 
(1) nouns and adjectives, (2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives 
and adverbs, (4) adjectives and pronouns, (5) adverbs and 
prepositions. 

I. Nouns and Adjectives 

Nouns Adjectives 

Rubber comes from South America. This wheel has a rubber tire. 

That brick is yellow. Here is a brick house. 

The rich have a grave responsibility. A rich merchant lives here. 

The first two examples show how words that are commonly 
nouns may be used as adjectives ; the third shows how words 
that are commonly adjectives may be used as nouns. 

II. Nouns and Verbs 

Nouns Verbs 

Hear the wash of the tide. Wash those windows. 

Give me a stamp. Stamp this envelope. 

It is the call of the sea. Ye call me chief. 

Other examples are : act, address, ally, answer, boast, care, cause, 
close, defeat, doubt, drop, heap, hope, mark, offer, pile, place, rest, rule, 
sail, shape, sleep, spur, test, watch, wound. 



10 DIFFEEENT PAETS OF SPEECH 

III. Adjectives and Adverbs 

Adjectives Adverbs 

That is a fast boat. The snow is melting fast. 

Draw a straight line. The arrow flew straight. 

Early comers get good seats. Tom awoke early. 

For an explanation of the form of these adverbs, see § 191. 

IV. Adjectives and Pronouns 

Adjectives Pronouns 

This man looks unhappy. This is the sergeant. 

That book is a dictionary. That is a kangaroo. 

Each day brings its opportunity. I received a dollar from each. 

For further study of this class of words, see pp. 62-65. 

V. Adverbs and Prepositions 

Adverbs Prepositions 

Jill came tumbling after. He returned after the accident. 

We went below. Below us lay the valley. 

The weeds sprang up. We walked up the hill. 

Other examples are : aboard, before, beyond, down, inside, underneath. 

Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following : — 

Noun. The calm lasted for three days. 

Adjective. Calm words show quiet minds. 
Verb. Calm your angry friend. 

Other examples are : iron, stone, paper, sugar, salt, bark, quiet, black, 
light, head, wet, round, square, winter, spring. 

Noun. Wrong seldom prospers. 

Adjective. You have taken the wrong road. 

Adverb. Edward often spells words wrong. 

Verb. You wrong me by your suspicions. 

Noun. The outside of the castle is gloomy. 

Adjective. We have an outside stateroom. 

Adverb. The messenger is waiting outside. 

Preposition. I shall ride outside the coach. 



INFINITIVES AND PAETICIPLES 11 

Adjective. That boat is a sloop. 

Pronoun. That is my uncle. 

Conjunction. You said that you would help me. 

Adjective. Neither road leads to Utica. 

Pronoun. Neither of us arrived in time. 

Conjunction. Neither Tom nor I was late. 

Preposition. I am waiting for the train. 

Conjunction. You have plenty of time, for the train is late. 

Interjection. Hurrah! the battle is won. 

Noun. I heard a loud hurrah. 

Verb. The enemy flees. Our men hurrah. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES 

26. Two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way 
the fact that the same word may belong to different parts of 
speech ; for they really belong to two different parts of speech 
at one and the same time. These are the infinitive (which is 
both verb and noun) and the participle (which is both verb and 
adjective). 

27. Examples of the infinitive may be seen in the following 

sentences : „ J ' 

To struggle was useless. 

To escape is impossible. 

To exercise regularly preserves the health. 

To struggle is clearly a noun, for (1) it is the subject of the 
sentence, and (2) the noun effort or exertion might be put in 
the place of to struggle. Similarly, the noun escape might be 
substituted for to escape; and, in the third sentence, regular 
exercise (a noun modified by an adjective) might be substituted 
for to exercise regularly. 

But these three forms (to struggle, to escape, and to exercise) 
are also verbs, for they express action, and one of them (to ex- 
ercise) is modified by an adverb (regularly). Such forms, there- 
fore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, 
and are called infinitives. 



12 INFINITIVES AND PAETICIPLES 

28. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a 
noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which Is called the 
sign of the infinitive. 

29. The infinitive without to is used in a great variety of 

verb-phrases. 

I shall go. Mary may recite. 

John will win. Jack can swim. 

Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection 
of verbs. 

Note. That go, win, recite, and swim are infinitives may be seen by com- 
paring the following sentences: — "I intend to go," "John is sure to win," 
"Mary is permitted to recite," "Jack is able to swim." 

30. The following sentence contains two participles : — 
Shattered and slowly sinking, the frigate drifted out to sea. 

In this sentence, we recognize shattered as a form of the verb 
shatter, and sinking as a form of the verb sink. They both ex- 
press action, and sinking is modified by the adverb slowly. But 
shattered and sinking have also the nature of adjectives, for they 
are used to describe the noun frigate. Such words, then, are 
adjective forms of the verb. They are classed as verbs, and 
are called participles, because they share (or participate in) the 
nature of adjectives. 

31. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which 
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in 
such a way as to describe or limit a substantive. 

A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it 
describes or limits. 

32. The chief classes of participles are present participles and 
past participles, so called from the time which they denote. 

All present participles end in ing. Past participles have 
several different endings, which will be studied in connection 
with the inflection of verbs (§ 334). 



SIMPLE AKD COMPLETE SUBJECT 13 

33. Participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases. 

Tom is coming. Your book is found. 

Our boat was wrecked. They have sold their horses. 

I have sent the money. You have broken your watch. 

He has brought me a letter. The ship had struck on the reef. 

Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection 
of verbs. 

Note. The double nature of the infinitive (as both verb and noun) and 
the participle (as both verb and adjective) almost justifies one in classifying 
each as a distinct part of speech (so as to make ten parts of speech instead of 
eight). But it is more convenient to include them under the head of verbs, in 
accordance with the usual practice. 

SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

34. Our survey of the eight parts of speech has shown, (1) 
that these have very different offices or functions in the sen- 
tence, and (2) that their functions are not of equal importance. 

Clearly, the most important parts of speech are substantives 
(nouns and pronouns) and verbs. 

Substantives enable us to name or designate persons, places, 
or things, and verbs enable us to make statements about them. 
Both substantives and verbs, then, are absolutely necessary in 
framing sentences. Without a substantive, there can be no 
subject ; without a verb, there can be no predicate : and both a 
subject and a predicate, as we have seen, are needed to make 
a sentence. 

Adjectives and adverbs are less important than substantives 
and verbs. Their function is to modify other parts of speech, 
that is, to change their meaning in some way. Thus adjectives 
modify substantives (by describing or limiting), and adverbs 
usually modify verbs (by indicating how, when, or where the 
action took place). Without substantives, there would be no 
use for adjectives; without verbs, there would be little use 
for adverbs. 



14 SIMPLE AKD COMPLETE SUBJECT 

Prepositions and conjunctions are also less important than sub- 
stantives and verbs. Their office is to connect and to show 
relation. Of course, there would be no place for connectives 
if there were nothing to connect. 

Interjections are the least important of all. They add liveli- 
ness to language, but they are not actual necessities. We 
could express all the thoughts that enter our minds without 
ever using an interjection. 

35. A sentence may consist of but two words, — a noun or 
pronoun (the subject) and a verb (the predicate). Thus, — 

Charles | swims. 

Commonly, however, either the subject or the predicate, or 
both, will contain more than one word. Thus, — 

Young Charles | swims slowly. 

Here the complete subject (young Charles) consists of a noun 
(Charles) and an adjective (young), which describes Charles. 
The complete predicate consists of a verb (swims) and an adverb 
(slowly), which modifies swim by indicating how the action is 
performed. The subject noun (Charles) and the predicate verb 
(swims) are the chief words in the sentence, for neither could 
be omitted without destroying it. They form, so to speak, the 
frame or skeleton of the whole. Either of the two modifiers, 
the adjective or the adverb, or both, might be omitted, with- 
out destroying the sentence; for this would still exist as the 
expression of a thought (Charles swims), though the thought 
would be less definite and exact than it is when the modifiers 
are included. 

36. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun. 
The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase. 

The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its mean- 
ing, forms the complete subject. 

The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its 
meaning, forms the complete predicate. 



SIMPLE AND COMPLETE PKEDICATE 15 

In each of the following sentences the complete subject and 
the complete predicate are separated by a vertical line, and the 
simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in italics : — 

The spider \ spreads her web. 

The fiery smoke \ rose upward in billowing volumes. 

A nameless unrest \ urged me forward. 

Our frantic horses \ swept round an angle of the road. 

The infirmities of age | came early upon him. 

The general feeling among the English in Bengal | was strongly in 
favor of the Governor General. 

Salutes | were fired from the batteries. 

The Clives | had been settled ever since the twelfth century on an 
estate of no great value near Market Drayton in Shropshire. 

1 1 have written repeatedly to Mr. Hobhouse. 

37. Two or more simple subjects may be joined to make 
one compound subject, and two or more simple predicates to 
make one compound predicate. 

1. Charles and Henry | play tennis well. 

2. Moore and I | passed some merry days togetSher. 

3. Frances and she | are friends. 

4. Hats, caps, boots, and gloves \ were piled together in confusion. 

5. The watch | sank and was lost. 

6. The balloon | rose higher and higher and finally disappeared. 

7. He | neither smiled nor frowned. 

8. Snow and ice \ covered the ground and made our progress difficult. 

38. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple 
subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions. 

Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound. 

In the first example in § 37, two simple subjects (Charles 
and Henry) are joined by the conjunction and to make a com- 
pound subject. In the fourth, four substantives (hats, caps, 
boots, gloves) form a series in which the last two are joined by 
and. In the fifth, sixth, and seventh, the predicates are com- 
pound ; in the eighth, both the subject and the predicate. 

39. The following conjunctions may be used to join the mem- 
bers of a compound subject or predicate : and (both . . . and), 
or (either . . . or ; whether . . . or), nor (neither . . . nor). 



16 SUBSTITUTES FOE PAETS OF SPEECH 

SUBSTITUTES FOR PARTS OF SPEECH 
PHRASES 

40. A group of words may take the place of a part of speech 

The Father of Waters is the Mississippi. 
A girl with blue eyes stood at the window. 
You are looking well. 

The Father of Waters is used as a noun, since it names something. 

With blue eyes takes the place of an adjective (blue-eyed), and modifies 
girl. 

At the window indicates, as an adverb might, where the girl stood, 
and modifies stood. 

Are looking could be replaced by the verb look. 

41. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a 
predicate, is called a phrase. 

A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech. 

1. A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase. 

2. A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase. 

3. A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase. 

4. A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase. 

In the examples in § 40, The Father of Waters is a noun-phrase ; with 
blue eyes, an adjective phrase ; at the window, an adverbial phrase ; are 
looking, a verb-phrase. 

42. Many adjective and adverbial phrases consist of a 
preposition and its object, with or without other words. 

Your umbrella is in the corner. 

He has a heart of oak. 

A cup with a broken handle stood on the shelf. 

My house of cards fell to the floor in a heap. 

Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its ob- 
ject, with or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases. 

CLAUSES -COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 

43. Phrases must be carefully distinguished from clauses. 
The difference is that a clause contains a subject and a predicate 
and a phrase does not. 



CLAUSES 17 

44. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and 
that contains a subject and a predicate. 

The lightning flashed | and | the thunder roared. 
The train started | when the bell rang. 

Each of these sentences contains two clauses ; but the relation 
between the clauses in the first sentence is very different from, 
that between the clauses in the second. 

In the first example, each of the two clauses makes a sepa- 
rate and distinct statement, and might stand by itself as a 
simple sentence, — that is, as a sentence having but one subject 
and one predicate. These clauses are joined by the conjunction 
and, which is not a part of either. No doubt the speaker feels 
that there is some relation in thought between the two state- 
ments, or he would not have put them together as clauses in 
the same sentence. But there is nothing in the form of expres- 
sion to show what that relation is. In other words, the two 
clauses are grammatically independent, for neither of them modi- 
fies (or affects the meaning of) the other. The clauses are 
therefore said to be coordinate, — that is, of the same " order " 
or rank, and the sentence is called compound. 

In the second example, on the contrary, the relation between 
the two clauses is indicated with precision. One clause (the 
train started) makes the main statement, — it expresses the 
chief fact. Hence it is called the main (or principal) clause. 
The other clause (when the bell rang) is added because the 
speaker wishes to modify the main verb (started?) by defining 
the time of the action. This clause, then, is used as a part of 
speech. Its function is the same as that of an adverb (promptly) 
or an adverbial phrase (on the stroke of the bell). For this pur- 
pose alone it exists, and not as an independent statement. Hence 
it is called a dependent (or subordinate) clause, because it depends 
(that is, " hangs ") upon the main clause, and so occupies a lower 
or " subordinate " rank in the sentence. When thus constructed, 
a sentence is said to be complex. 



18 CLAUSES 

45. An ordinary compound sentence (as we have seen in § 44) 
is made by joining two or more simple sentences, each of which 
thus becomes an independent coordinate clause. 

In the same way we may join two or more complex sentences, 
using them as clauses to make one compound sentence : — 

The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom watched until the 
last car disappeared. 

This sentence is manifestly compound, for it consists of two 
coordinate clauses (the train started when the bell rang ; Tom 
watched until the last car disappeared) joined by and. Each 
of these two clauses is itself complex, for each could stand by 
itself as a complex sentence. 

Similarly, a complex and a simple sentence may be joined as 
coordinate clauses to make a compound sentence. 

The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom gazed after it in 
despair. 

Such a sentence, which is compound in its structure, but in 
which one or more of the coordinate clauses are complex, is 
called a compound complex sentence. 1 

46. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and 
that contains a subject and a predicate. 

A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause, All 
other clauses are said to be independent. 

Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coordinate. 
Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex. 

1. A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or 
both of which may be compound. 

2. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coor- 
dinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions. 

3. A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which 
is independent and the rest subordinate. 

A compound sentence in which one or more of the coordinate clauses 
are complex is called a compound complex sentence. 

i Compound complex sentences are also called complex compound sentences. 
For further treatment of such sentences, see pp. 187, 190, 215-216. 



CLAUSES 19 

I. Simple Sentences 
Iron rusts. 
George V is king. 

Dogs, foxes, and hares are quadrupeds. [Compound subject.] 
The defendant rose and addressed the court. [Compound predicate.] 
Merton and his men crossed the bridge and scaled the wall. [Both 
subject and predicate are compound.] 

II. Compound Sentences 

Shakspere was born in 1564 ; he died in 1616. [Two coordinate 
clauses ; no conjunction.] 

A rifle cracked, and the wolf fell dead. [Two clauses joined by the 
conjunction and.] 

You must hurry, or we shall lose the train. [Two clauses joined by or.] 

James Watt did not invent the steam engine, but he greatly improved 
it. [Two clauses joined by but.] 

Either you have neglected to write or your letter has failed to reach 
me. [Two clauses joined by either . . .or.] 

The following conjunctions may be used to join coordinate 
clauses : and (both . . . and), or (either . . . or), nor (neither 
. . nor), but, for. 

III. Complex Sentences 
Examples will be found in § § 48-50. 

Clauses as Parts of Speech 

47. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech. 
They serve as substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs. 

1. A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or 
substantive) clause. 

2. A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an 
adjective clause. 

3. A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called 
an adverbial clause. 



20 NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 

48. I. Noun (or Substantive) Clauses. 

Success \. . . 

That we should succeed in this plan J ^ 

The thought in these two sentences is the same, but in the sec- 
ond it is more fully expressed. In the first sentence, the subject 
is the noun success ; in the second, the subject is the noun clause, 
that we should succeed in this plan. This clause is introduced 
by the conjunction that ; the simple subject of the clause is the 
pronoun we y and the simple predicate is the verb-phrase should 
succeed. The first sentence is simple ; the second is complex. 

Substantive clauses are often introduced by the conjunction 
that. 

49. II. Adjective Clauses. The following sentences illus- 
trate the use of (1) an adjective, (2) an adjective phrase, (3) an 
adjective clause, as a modifier of the subject noun. 

An honorable man "| 

A man of honor I will not lie. 

A maa who values his honor J 

A seasonable word ^ 

A word in season V may save a soul. 

A word that is spoken at the right moment J 

My native land ^ 

The land of my birth [ lies far across the sea. 

The laad where I was born J 

The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third 
is complex. 

50. III. Adverbial Clauses. The following sentences 
illustrate the use of (1) an adverb, (2) an adverbial phrase, 
(3) an adverbial clause, as a modifier of the predicate verb (or 

verb-phrase). 

(here. 
The lightning struck \ on this spot. 

{.where we stand, 
(near. 
Mr. Andrews lives i in this neighborhood. 
t where you see that elm. 



SUMMAEY OF DEFINITIONS 21 

{punctually. 
The game began «j on the stroke of one. 
^ when the clock struck. 

r conditionally. 
The banker will make the loan < on one condition. 

[if you endorse my note. 

The first two sentences in each, group are simple, the third 
is complex. 

51. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by the pro- 
nouns who, which, and that, or (2) by adverbs like where, 
whence, whither, when. 

Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by the adverbs 
where, whither, whence, when, while, before, after, until, how, 
as, or (2) by the conjunctions because, though, although, if, 
that (in order that, so thaf), lest, etc. 

Note. The use of phrases and clauses as parts of speech increases enor- 
mously the richness and power of language. Though English has a huge stock 
of words, it cannot provide a separate noun or adjective or adverb for every 
idea. By grouping words, however, in phrases and clauses we, in effect, make 
a great variety of new nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, each precisely fitted to 
the needs of the moment in the expression of thought. 

SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS 

The Sentence 

1. Language is thought expressed in words. 

2. To express thought words are combined into sentences. 

3. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete 
thought. 

4. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or 
exclamatory. 

(1) A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact. 

(2) An interrogative sentence asks a question. 

(3) An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request. 

(4) An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some 
other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry. 

A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may also 
be exclamatory. 



22 SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS 

Subject and Predicate 

5. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. 

The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that 
is spoken of ; the predicate is that which is said of the subject. 

6. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun. 
The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase. 

7. The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its 
meaning, forms the complete subject. 

The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its 
meaning, forms the complete predicate. 

8. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple 
subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions. 

Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound. 

The Parts of Speech 

9. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided 
into eight classes called parts of speech, — namely, nouns, pro- 
nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and 
interjections. 

(1) A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. 

(2) A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a 
person, place, or thing without naming it. 

Nouns and pronouns are called substantives. 

The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent. 

(3) An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive. 
This it usually does by indicating some quality. 

An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes 
or limits. 

An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective ; one 
which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective. 

(4) A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an 
action) concerning a person, place, or thing. 

Some verbs express state or condition rather than action. 

A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase. 

Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary 
(that is, w aiding ") verbs, because they help other verbs to express 
action or state of some particular kind. 



SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS 23 

Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to 
frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate de- 
scribe or define the subject. In such sentences, is and other verbs 
that are used for the same purpose are called copulative (that is, 
^joining") verbs. 

(5) An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or 
another adverb. 

A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning 
of another word is called a modifier. 

Adjectives and adverbs are both modifiers. 

(6) A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show 
its relation to some other word in the sentence. 

The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object. 

(7) A conjunction connects words or groups of words. 

(8) An interjection, is a cry or other exclamatory sound express- 
ing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling. 

10. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what 
part of speech it belongs. 

The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes 
another. 

11. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of 
a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called 
the sign of the infinitive. 

12. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which 
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state 
in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive. 

A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes 
or limits. 

The chief classes of participles are present participles and past 
participles, so called from the time which they denote. 

Substitutes for the Parts of Speech 
Phrases 

13. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and 
a predicate, is called a phrase. 

A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech. 

(1) A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase. 

(2) A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase. 



24 SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS 

(3) A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase. 

(4) A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase. 

14. Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and 
its object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional 
phrases. 

Clauses 

15. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and 
that contains a subject and a predicate. 

16. A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. 
All other clauses are said to be independent. 

17. Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coordinate. 

18. Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex. 

(1) A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either 
or both of which may be compound. 

(2) A compound sentence consists of two or more independent 
coordinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions. 

(3) A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of 
which is independent and the rest subordinate. 

A compound sentence in which one or more of the coordinate 
clauses are complex is called a compound complex sentence. 

19. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech. 
They serve as substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs. 

(1) A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun 
(or substantive) clause. 

(2) A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an 
adjective clause. 

(3) A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is 
called an adverbial clause. 



PART TWO 

INFLECTION AND SYNTAX 

CHAPTER I 
INFLECTION 

52. Inflection is a change of form in a word indicating some change 
in its meaning. A word thus changed in form is said to be inflected. 

Thus the nouns man, wife, dog, may change their form to man's, wife's, 
dog's, to express possession ; or to men, wives, dogs, to show that two or 
more are meant. 

The pronouns I, she, may change their form to our, her. 

The adjectives large, happy, good, may change their form to larger, 
happier, better, to denote a higher degree of the quality ; or to largest, 
happiest, best, to denote the highest degree. 

The verbs look, see, sing, may change their form to looked, saw, sang, 
to denote past time. 

The examples show that a word may be inflected (1) by the 
addition of a final letter or syllable (dog, dogs ; look, looked), 
(2) by the substitution of one letter for another (man, men), 
or (3) by a complete change of form (good, better, best). 

53. The inflection of a substantive is called its declension; 
that of an adjective or an adverb, its comparison; that of a 
verb, its conjugation. 

Note. Some forms which we regard as due to inflection are really distinct 
words. Thus we is regarded as a form of the pronoun 7, but it is in fact an 
altogether different word. Such irregularities, however, are not numerous, 
and are properly enough included under the head of inflection. 

25 



26 



INFLECTION 



The table below gives a summary view of inflection, and may 
be used for reference with the following chapters. 



Substantives 
(Nouns and 
Pronouns) 



Gender 



Adjectives 



f 



f Masculine (male) 
. < Feminine (female) 

^ Neuter (no sex) 
Number ./Singular^) 

1^ Plural (more than one) 

f First (speaker) 
Person . . -I Second (spoken to) 

I Third (spoken of) 

( Nominative (subject case) 
Case . . . -j Possessive (ownership) 

(^Objective (object case) 

( Positive Degree 



AND 



< Comparison -j Comparative Degree 



^ Superlative Degree 



Verbs 



Number 



Person 



f Singular 
* t Plural 

f First 
. < Second 

[Third 

Simple 
Tenses 



Verb agrees with Subject 



Tense 



Mood 



f Present 

-j Past 

^ Future 

~ , fPerfectCor Present Perfect) 

Compound | „ v ' 

^ i Pluperfect(or Past Perfect) 

^Future Perfect 

f Indicative (all six tenses) 

| Imperative (Present Tense only) 

I Subjunctive (Present, Past, Perfect, 

[ Pluperfect) 

. f Active (Subject acts) 

L Passive (Subject receives the action) 

Infinitives (Present and Perfect) 

Participles (Present, Past, and Perfect) 



COMMON NOUNS AND PROPER NOUNS 27 

CHAPTER II 
NOUNS 

CLASSIFICATION — COMMON NOUNS AND PROPER NOUNS 

54. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. 

55. Nouns are divided into two classes — proper nouns and common 
nouns. 

1. A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing. 

Examples : Lincoln, Napoleon, Ruth, Gladstone, America, Denver, 
Jove, Ohio, Monday, December, Yale, Christmas, Britannia, Niagara, 
Merrimac, Elmwood, Louvre, Richardson, Huron, Falstaff. 

2. A common noun is a name which may he applied to any one of a 
class of persons, places, or things. 

Examples : general, emperor, president, clerk, street, town, desk, 
tree, cloud, chimney, childhood, idea, thought, letter, dynamo, cruiser, 
dictionary, railroad. 

Proper nouns begin with, a capital letter; common nouns 
usually begin with a small letter. 

Note. Although a proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, 
or thing, that name may he given to more than one individual. More than one 
man is named James ; but when we say James, we think of one particular 
person, whom we are calling by his own name. When we say man, on the 
contrary, we are not calling any single person by name : we are using a noun 
which applies, in common, to all the members of a large class of persons. 

Any word, when mentioned merely as a word, is a noun. 

Thus, — 

And is a conjunction. 

56. A common noun becomes a proper noun when used as 
the particular name of a ship, a newspaper, an animal, etc. 

Nelson's flagship was the Victory. 

Give me this evening's Herald. 

My dog is named Rover. 

The Limited Express is drawn by the Pioneer. 



28 NOUNS 

57. A proper noun often consists of a group of words, some 
of which are perhaps ordinarily used as other parts of speech. 

Examples : James Russell Lowell, Washington Elm, Eiffel Tower, 
Firth of Clyde, North Lexington Junction, Stony Brook, Westminster 
Abbey, Measure for Measure, White House, Brooklyn Bridge, Atlantic 
Railroad, Sherman Act, The Return of the Native, Flatiron Building. 

Note. These are (strictly speaking) noun-phrases (§ 41) ; but, since all are 
particular names, they may be regarded as proper nouns. 

58. A proper noun becomes a common noun when used as a 
name that may be applied to any one of a class of objects. 

The museum owns two Rembrandts and a Titian. 

I exchanged my old motor car for a new Halstead. 

My fountain pen is a Blake. 

Lend me your Webster. 

He was a Napoleon of finance. 

I am going to buy a Kazak. 

59. Certain proper nouns have become common nouns when 
used in a special sense. These generally begin with a small 
letter. 

Examples : macadam (crushed stone for roads, so called from Mac- 
adam, the inventor), mackintosh (a waterproof garment), napoleon (a 
coin), guinea (twenty-one shillings), mentor (a wise counsellor), derrin- 
ger (a kind of pistol). 

60. A lifeless object, one of the lower animals, or any human 
quality or emotion is sometimes regarded as a person. 

This usage is called personification, and the object, animal, or 
quality is said to be personified. 

Each old poetic Mountain 
Inspiration breathed around. — Gray. 

Who '11 toll the bell ? 
"I," said the Bull, 
" Because I can pull." 

His name was Patience. — Spenser. 



SPECIAL CLASSES OF NOUNS 29 

Smiles on past Misfortune's brow 
Soft Reflections hand can trace ; 
And o'er the cheek of Sorrow throw 
A melancholy grace. — Gray. 

Love is and was my lord and king, 

And in his presence I attend. — Tennyson. 

Time gently shakes his wings. — Dryden. 

The name of anything personified is regarded as a proper 
noun and is usually written with a capital letter. 

Note. The rule for capitals is not absolute. When the personification is 
kept up for only a sentence or two (as frequently in Shakspere), the noun 
often begins with a small letter. 



SPECIAL CLASSES OF NOUNS 

61. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or general idea. 

Examples : blackness, freshness, smoothness, weight, height, length, 
depth, strength, health, honesty, beauty, liberty, eternity, satisfaction, 
precision, splendor, terror, disappointment, elegance, existence, grace, 
peace. 

Many abstract nouns are derived from adjectives. 

Examples : greenness (from green), depth (from deep), freedom (from 
free), wisdom (from wise), rotundity (from rotund), falsity or falseness 
(from false), bravery (from brave). 

62. A collective noun is the name of a group, class, or multitude, 
and not of a single person, place, or thing. 

Examples : crowd, group, legislature, squadron, sheaf, battalion, 
squad, Associated Press, Mediterranean Steamship Company, Senior 
Class, School Board. 

The same noun may be abstract in one of its meanings, 
collective in another. 

They believe in fraternity. [Abstract.] 

The student joined a fraternity . [Collective.] 



30 NOUNS 

63. Abstract nouns are usually common, but become proper 
when the quality or idea is personified (§ 60). 

Collective nouns may be either proper or common. . 

64. A noun consisting of two or more words united is called a com- 
pound noun. 

Examples : (1) common nouns, — tablecloth, sidewalk, lampshade, 
bedclothes, steamboat, fireman, washerwoman, jackknife, hatband, 
headache, flatiron, innkeeper, knife-edge, steeple-climber, brother-in- 
law, commander-in-chief, window curtain, insurance company; (2) proper 
nouns, — Johnson, Williamson, Cooperstown, Louisville, Holy wood, Elk- 
horn, Auburndale, Stratford-on-Avon, Lowell Junction. 

As the examples show, the parts of a compound noun may be 
joined (with or without a hyphen) or written separately. In some 
words usage is fixed, in others it varies. The hyphen, however, is 
less used than formerly. 

Note. The first part of a compound noun usually limits the second after the 
manner of an adjective. Indeed, many expressions may be regarded either 
(1) as compounds or (2) as phrases containing an adjective and a noun. Thus 
railway conductor may be taken as a compound noun, or as a noun {conductor) 
limited by an adjective {railway) . 

INFLECTION OF NOUNS 

65. In studying the inflection of nouns and pronouns we 
have to consider gender, number, person, and case. 

1. Gender is distinction according to sex. 

2. Number is that property of substantives which shows whether 
they indicate one person or thing or more than one. 

3. Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they 
designate (i) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person or 
thing spoken of. 

4. Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical 
relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives. 

These four properties of substantives are included under inflection for con- 
venience. In strictness, however, nouns are inflected for number and case 
only. Gender is shown in various ways, — usually by the meaning of the 
noun or by the use of some pronoun. Person is indicated by the sense, by 
the pronouns used, and by the form of the verb. 



GENDER 31 

I. GENDER 

66. Gender is distinction according to sex. 

Nouns and pronouns may be of the masculine, the feminine, or the 
neuter gender. 

1. A noun or pronoun denoting a male being is of the masculine 
gender. 

Examples : Joseph, boy, cockerel, buck, footman, butler, brother, 
father, uncle, he. 

2. A noun or pronoun denoting a female being is of the feminine 
gender. 

Examples : girl, Julia, hen, waitress, maid, doe, spinster, matron, 
aunt, squaw, she. 

3. A noun or pronoun denoting a thing without animal life is of the 
neuter gender. 

Examples : pencil, light, water, star, book, dust, leaf, it. 

A noun or pronoun which is sometimes masculine and some- 
times feminine is often said to be of common gender. 

Examples : bird, speaker, artist, animal, cat, European, musician, 
operator, they. 

67. A pronoun must be in the same gender as the noun for which it 
stands or to which it refers. 

Each of the following pronouns is limited to a single gender : 

Masculine : he, his, him. 
Feminine : she, her, hers. 
Neuter : it, its. 

All other pronouns vary in gender. 

Robert greeted his employer. [Masculine.] 

A mother passed with her child. [Feminine.] 

This tree has lost its foliage. [Neuter.] 

Who laughed ? [Masculine or feminine.] 

How do you do ? [Masculine or feminine.] 

They have disappeared. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter,] 

I do not care for either. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter.] 



32 



NOUNS 



68. A neuter noun may become masculine or feminine by 
personification (§ 60). 

Thou who didst waken from his summer dreams 
The blue Mediterranean. — Shelley. 

Stern daughter of the Voice of God ! 
O Duty ! — Wordsworth. 

Nature from her seat 
Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe. — Milton. 

69. In speaking of certain objects, such as a ship and the 
moon, it is customary to use she and her. In like manner, he 
is used in speaking of the sun and of most animals, without 
reference to sex, although it often designates an insect or other 
small creature, and even a very young child. 

Who and which are both used in referring to the lower ani- 
mals. Which is the commoner, but tvho is not infrequent, espe- 
cially if the animal is thought of as an intelligent being. 

Thus one would say, "The dog which is for sale is in that kennel," 
even if one added, "He is a collie." But which would never be used in 
such a sentence as, "I have a dog who loves children." 

70. The gender of masculine and of feminine nouns may be 
shown in various ways. 

1. The male and the female of many kinds or classes of living 
beings are denoted by different words. 



Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


father 


mother 


gander 


• goose 


husband 


wife 


drake 


duck 


uncle 


aunt 


cock 


hen 


king 


queen 


ram 


ewe 


monk 


nun 


bull 


cow 


wizard 


witch 


hart 


hind 


lord 


lady 


buck 


doe 


horse 


mare 


fox 


vixen * 



1 Vixen is really formed from fox (compare the German Fuchsin from Fuchs). 



GENDER 



33 



2. Some masculine nouns become feminine by the addition 
of an ending. 



Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


heir 


heiress 


executor 


executrix 


baron 


baroness 


administrator 


administratrix 


lion 


lioness 


hero 


heroine 


prince 


princess 


Joseph 


Josephine 


emperor 


empress 


sultan 


sultana 


tiger 


tigress 


Philip 


Philippa 



Note. The feminine gender is often indicated by the ending ess. Fre- 
quently the corresponding masculine form ends in or or er: as, — actor, 
actress; governor, governess; waiter, waitress. The ending ess is not so 
common as formerly. Usage favors proprietor, author, editor, etc., even for 
the feminine (rather than the harsher forms prop rietress, authoress, editress), 
whenever there is no special reason for emphasizing the difference of sex. 

3. A few feminine words become masculine by the addition 
of an ending. Thus, — widow, widower ; bride, bridegroom. 

4. Gender is sometimes indicated by the ending man, ivoman, 
maid, boy, or girl. 

Examples : salesman, saleswoman ; foreman, forewoman ; laundry- 
man ; milkmaid ; cash boy, cash girl. 

5. A noun or a pronoun is sometimes prefixed to a noun to 
indicate gender. 

Examples : manservant, maidservant ; mother bird ; cock sparrow, 
hen sparrow ; boy friend, girl friend ; he-wolf, she-wolf. 

6. The gender of a noun may be indicated by some accom- 
panying part of speech, usually by a pronoun. 

My cat is always washing his face. 

The intruder shook her head. 

I was confronted by a pitiful creature, haggard and unshaven. 

Note. The variations in form studied under 2 and 3 (above) are often re- 
garded as inflections. In reality, however, the masculine and the feminine 
are different words. Thus, baroness is not an inflectional form of baron, but a 
distinct noun, made from baron by adding the ending ess, precisely as barony 
and baronage are made from baron by adding the endings y and age. The 
process is rather that of derivation or noun-formation than that of inflection. 



34 NOUNS 

II. NUMBER 

71. Number is that property of substantives which shows whether 
they indicate one person, place, or thing or more than one. 

There are two numbers, — the singular and the plural. 
The singular number denotes but one person, place, or thing. The 
plural number denotes more than one person, place, or thing. 

72. Most nouns form the plural number by adding s or es to the 
singular. 

Examples: mat, mats; wave, waves; problem, problems; bough, 
boughs ; John, Johns ; nurse, nurses ; tense, tenses ; bench, benches ; 
dish, dishes ; class, classes ; fox, foxes. 

Special Rules 

1. If the singular ends in s, x, z, ch, or sh, the plural end- 
ing is es. 

Examples : loss, losses ; box, boxes ; buzz, buzzes ; match, matches ; 
rush, rushes. 

2. Many nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant also 
take the ending es in the plural. 

Examples : hero, heroes ; cargo, cargoes ; potato, potatoes ; motto, 
mottoes ; buffalo, buffaloes ; mosquito, mosquitoes. 

3. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form their plural 
in s : as, — cameo, cameos ; folio, folios. 

4. The following nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant 
also form their plural in s : — 



banjo 


casino 


dynamo 


memento x 


quarto 


torso 


bravo 


chromo 


halo 1 


octavo 


solo 


tyro 


burro 


contralto 


junto 


piano 


soprano 


zero 1 


canto 


duodecimo 


lasso 


proviso 


stiletto 





73. In some nouns the addition of the plural ending alters 
the spelling and even the sound of the singular form, 

1 Halo, memento, zero also form a plural in es (haloes, etc.)- 



NUMBER 35 

I* Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y to 
i and add es in the plural. 

Examples : sky, skies ; fly, flies ; country, countries ; berry, berries. 
(Contrast : valley, valleys ; chimney, chimneys ; monkey, monkeys ; boy, 
boys ; day, days.) 

Most proper names ending in y, however, take the plural in s. 

Examples : Mary, Marys ; Murphy, Murphys ; Daly, Dalys ; Rowley, 
Rowleys ; May, Mays. 

2. Some nouns ending in f or fe, change the f to v and 
add es or s. 

Examples : wharf, wharves ; wife, wives ; shelf, shelves ; wolf, 
wolves ; thief, thieves ; knife, knives ; half, halves ; calf, calves ; life, 
lives ; self, selves ; sheaf, sheaves ; loaf, loaves ; leaf, leaves ; elf, elves ; 
beef, beeves. 

74. A few nouns form their plural in en. 

These are : ox, oxen ; brother, brethren (or brothers) ; child, children. 

Note. Ancient or poetical plurals belonging to this class are : eyne (for 
eyen, from eye) , kine (cows) , shoon (shoes) , hosen (hose) . 

75. A few nouns form their plural by a change of voweL 

These are : man, men ; woman, women ; merman, mermen ; foot, feet ; 
tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; mouse, mice ; louse, lice. Also compound 
words ending in man or woman, such as fireman, firemen ; saleswoman, 
saleswomen ; Dutchman, Dutchmen. 

Note. German, Mussulman, Ottoman, dragoman, firman, and talisman, 
which are not compounds of man, form their plurals regularly : as, — Germans, 
Mussulmans. Norman also forms its plural in s. 

76. A few nouns have the same form in both singular and 
plural. 

Examples : deer, sheep, heathen, Japanese, Portuguese, Iroquois. 

Note. This class was larger in older English than at present. It included, 
for example, year, which in Shakspere has two plurals: — "six thousand 
years," "twelve year since." 



36 NOUNS 

77. A few nouns have two plurals, but usually with some 
difference in meaning. 

Singular Plural 

brother | brothers (relatives) 

^ brethren (members of the same society) 
horse . f horses (animals) 

^ horse (cavalry) 
I . f feet (parts of the body) 

l^foot (infantry) 



sail ...... . jsai|s (on - 

^ sail (vessels in a fleet) 
h ea( q f heads (in usual sense) 

l^head (of cattle) 
~ , J fishes (individually) 

(^fish (collectively) 
penny f pennies (single coins^ 

^ pence (collectively) 
cloth. ^ cloths (pieces of cloth) 

\ clothes (garments) 
£• f dies (for stamping) 

L dice (for gaming) 

The pennies were arranged in neat piles. 

English money is reckoned in pounds, shillings, and pence. 

78. When compound nouns are made plural, the last part usu- 
ally takes the plural form ; less often the first part ; rarely 
both parts. 

Examples : spoonful, spoonfuls ; bathhouse, bathhouses ; forget-me- 
not, forget-me-nots ; editor-in-chief, editors-in-chief ; maid-of -honor, 
maids -of -honor ; gentleman usher, gentlemen ushers ; Knight Templar, 
Knights Templars ; Lord Justice, Lords Justices ; manservant, men- 
servants. 

79. Letters of the alphabet, figures, signs used in writing, 
and words regarded merely as words take 's in the plural. 

ff Embarrassed " is spelled with two r's and two s's. 

Your S's look like 8's. 

Tell the printer to change the §'s to T's. 

Don't interrupt me with your hut's ! 



NUMBEE 



37 



80. Foreign nouns in English sometimes retain their foreign 
plurals ; but many have an English plural also. 

Some of the commonest are included in the following list : * 



Singular 


Plural 


alumna (feminine) 


alumnae 


alumnus (masculine) alumni 


amanuensis 


amanuenses 


analysis 


analyses 


animalculum 


animal cul a 2 


antithesis 


antitheses 


appendix 


f appendices 
\ appendixes 


axis 


axes 


bacillus 


bacilli 


bacterium 


bacteria 


bandit 


f banditti 
^ bandits 


basis 


bases 


beau 


f beaux 
^ beaus 


candelabrum 


candelabra 


cumulus 


cumuli 


cherub 


f cherubim 
^ cherubs 


crisis 


crises 


curriculum 


curricula 


datum 


data 


ellipsis 


ellipses 


erratum 


errata 


formula 


f formulae 
1 formulas 



Singular 


Plural 


genius 


f genii 
\ geniuses 


genus 


genera 


gymnasium 

hippopotamus 

hypothesis 

larva 


f gymnasia 
^ gymnasiums 
5 hippopotami 

hypotheses 

larvae 


memorandum 


J memoranda 
^memorandums 


nebula 


nebulae 


oasis 


oases 


parenthesis 


parentheses 


phenomenon 


phenomena 


radius 


radii 


seraph 


f seraphim 
^ seraphs 


species 
stratum 


species 
strata 


synopsis 
tableau 


synopses 
tableaux 


tempo 
terminus 


tempi 
termini 


thesis 


theses 


trousseau 


trousseaux 


vertebra 


vertebrae 



The two plurals sometimes differ in meaning : as, — 

Michael Angelo and Raphael were geniuses. 

Spirits are sometimes called genii. 

This book has two indices. 

The printer uses signs called indexes. 



1 This list is intended for reference. 

2 The English word animalcule (plural animalcules) is preferable, 
plural animalculas is erroneous. 



The 



38 NOUNS 

81. When a proper name with the title Mr., Mrs., Miss, or 
Master, is put into the plural, the rules are as follows : — 

1. The plural of Mr. is Messrs. (pronounced Messers *). The 
name remains in the singular. Thus, — 

Mr. Jackson, plural Messrs. (or the Messrs.) Jackson. 

2. Mrs. has no plural. The name itself takes the plural 
form. Thus, — 

Mrs. Jackson, plural the Mrs. Jacksons. 

3. In the case of Miss, sometimes the title is put into the 
plural, sometimes the name. Thus, — 

Miss Jackson, plural the Misses Jackson or the Miss Jacksons. 

The latter expression is somewhat informal. Accordingly, it would not be 
used in a formal invitation or reply, or in addressing a letter. 

4. The plural of Master is Masters. The name remains in 
the singular. Thus, — 

Master Jackson, plural the Masters Jackson. 

Other titles usually remain in the singular, the name taking the plural 
form : as, — the two General Follansbys. But when two or more names follow, 
the title becomes plural : as, — Generals Bolfe and Johnson. 

82. Some nouns, on account of their meaning, are seldom or 
never used in the plural. 

Such are many names of qualities (as cheerfulness, mirth), of sciences 
(as chemistry 2 ), of forces (as gravitation) . 

Many nouns, commonly used in the singular only, may take 
a plural in some special sense. Thus, — 

earth (the globe) earths (kinds of soil) 

ice (frozen water) ices (food) 

tin (a metal) tins (tin dishes or cans) 

nickel (a metal) nickels (coins) 

1 Messrs. is an abbreviation of the French messieurs. 

2 When such nouns as chemistry refer to textbooks, they may be used in 
the plural: as, — " Bring your chemistries to-morrow." 



PERSON 39 

83. Some nouns are used in the plural only. 

Such are: annals, athletics, billiards, dregs, eaves, entrails, lees, 
nuptials, oats, obsequies, pincers, proceeds, riches, scissors, shears, suds, 
tweezers, tongs, trousers, victuals, vitals ; and (in certain special senses) 
ashes, goods, links, scales, spectacles, stocks. 

84. A few nouns are plural in form, but singular in meaning. 

Such are: gallows, news, measles, mumps, small pox (for small pocks), 
politics, and some names of sciences (as, civics, economics, ethics, mathe- 
matics, physics, optics). 

Note. These nouns were formerly plural in sense as well as in form. News, 
for example, originally meant " new things." Shakspere uses it both as a sin- 
gular and as a plural. Thus, — " This neivs was brought to Richard " (King 
John, v. 3. 12) ; " But wherefore do I tell these news to thee? " (1 Henry IV, 
iii. 2. 121). In a few words modern usage varies. The following nouns are 
sometimes singular, sometimes plural : alms, amends, bellows, means, pains 
(in the sense of " effort "), tidings. 



IH. PERSON 

85. Person is that property of substantives which shows whether 
they denote (i) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person 
spoken of. 

A substantive is in the first person when it denotes the speaker, in 
the second person when it denotes the person spoken to, in the third 
person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of. 

I, the king, command his presence. [First person.] 
You, Thomas, broke the window. [Second person.] 
Charles, come here. [Second person.] 
He, the fireman, saved the train. [Third person.] 
The diver sinks slowly from our view. [Third person.] 
The tower suddenly collapsed. [Third person.] 

The examples show (1) that the person of a noun has noth- 
ing to do with its form, but is indicated by the sense or con- 
nection ; (2) that certain pronouns denote person with precision. 
Thus, I is always of the first person ; you of the second ; and 
he of the third. These personal pronouns will be treated in 
Chapter III. 



40 



NOUNS 



IV. CASE 

86. Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammati- 
cal relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives. 

There are three cases, — the nominative, the possessive, and 
the objective. 

The possessive case is often called the genitive. 

The nominative and the objective case of a noun are always 
alike in form. In some pronouns, however, there is a difference 
(as, — 7, me ; he, him). 

Declension of Nouns 

87. The inflection of a substantive is called its declension. 
To decline a noun is to give its case-forms in order, first in the 
singular number and then in the plural. Thus, — 







Singular 






Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


boy 

boy's 

boy 


horse 

horse's 

horse 

Plural 


fly 

fly's 

fly 


chimney 

chimney's 

chimney 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


boys 
boys' 
boys 


horses 
horses' 
horses 

Singular 


flies 
flies' 
flies 


chimneys 
chimneys' 
chimneys 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


calf 

calf's 

calf 


lass 

lass's 

lass 

Plural 


man 

man's 

man 


deer 

deer's 

deer 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


calves 
calves' 
calves 


lasses 
lasses' 
lasses 


men 

men's 

men 


deer 

deer's 

deer 



NOMINATIVE CASE 41 

Nominative Case 

88. The nominative case is used in the following constructions : 
(1) the subject, (2) the predicate nominative, (3) the vocative 
(or nominative of direct address), (4) the exclamatory nomina- 
tive, (5) appositive with a nominative, (6) the nominative 

absolute. 

1. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case. 

Water freezes. 

Charles climbed the mountain. 

The boy's face glowed with health and exercise. 

A thousand men were killed in this battle. 

In the third example, face is the simple subject ; the com- 
plete subject is the boy 7 s face. In the fourth, men is the simple 
subject ; the complete subject is a thousand men. Both face 
and men are in the nominative case ; face is in the singular 
number ; men in the plural. 

2. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defin- 
ing the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate 
nominative. 

A predicate nominative is also called a subject complement or an attribute. 

Lobsters are crustaceans.*^ 

A good book is a faithful friend. ^ 

Shakspere was a native of Stratf ord-on-Avon. i^ 

Arnold proved a traitor. 

Adams was elected president. 

The rule for the case of the predicate nominative is particu- 
larly important with respect to pronouns (§ 119). 

I am he. Are you she ? 

It is I. It was we who did it. 

The predicate nominative is commonest after the copula is 
(in its various forms). It will be further studied in connection 
with intransitive and passive verbs (§§ 214, 252). 



42 NOUNS 

3. A substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person directly, 
and not connected with any verb, is called a vocative. 

A vocative is in the nominative case, and is often called a 
nominative by direct address or a vocative nominative. 

Come, Ruth, give me your hand. 
Turn to the right, madam. ^ 
Herbert, it is your turn. i^ 
Come with me, my child. 

Note. A vocative word is sometimes said to be independent by direct 
address, because it stands by itself, unconnected with any verb. That a voca- 
tive is really in the nominative case may be seen in the use of the pronoun 
thou in this construction: as, — I will arrest thee, thou traitor (see § 115). 

4. A substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory 
nominative (or nominative of exclamation). 

Peace, be still. 

Fortunate Ruth ! 

A drum ! a drum ! Macbeth doth come. 

Look ! a balloon ! 

The sun ! then we shall have a fine day. 

Certain exclamatory nominatives are sometimes classed as interjections 
(§375). 

5. A substantive added to another substantive to explain it and sig- 
nifying the same person or thing, is called an appositive and is said to 
be in apposition. 

An appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it limits. 

Hence a substantive in apposition with a nominative is in 
the nominative case. 

>J Mr. Scott, the grocer, is here. [Apposition with subject.] 

Tom, old fellow, I am glad to see you. [Apposition with vocative.] 
The discoverer of the Pacific was Balboa, a Spaniard, [Apposition 

with predicate nominative.] 

Note. Apposition means "attachment"; appositive means "attached 
noun or pronoun." An appositive modifies the noun with which it is in appo- 
sition much as an adjective might do (compare "Balboa, a Spaniard" with 
" Spanish Balboa "). Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier. 



FOKMS OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE 43 

Possessive Case 

89. The possessive case denotes ownership or possession. 

John's yacht lies at her moorings. 

The duck's feet are webbed, w 

The mutineer' 1 s pistol burst when he fired. 

Note. Most uses of the possessive come under the general head of posses- 
sion in some sense. Special varieties of meaning are source (as in " hen's eggs ") 
and authorship (as in " Wordsworth's sonnets"). 

A possessive noun or pronoun modifies the substantive to which it is 
attached as an adjective might do. Hence it is classed as an adjective 
modifier. 

Forms of the Possessive Case 

90. The possessive case of most nouns has, in the singular number, 
the ending 's. 

Examples : the owl's feathers, Elizabeth's hat, the officer's name. 

Plural nouns ending in s take no further ending for the possessive. 
In writing, however, an apostrophe is put after the 5 to indicate the 
possessive case. 

Examples: the owls' feathers, the officers' names, the artists' petition, 
the engineers' ball. 

Plural nouns not ending in s take f s in the possessive. 

Examples : the firemen's ball, the policemen's quarters, the children's 
hour. 

Note. In older English the possessive of most nouns was written as well 
as pronounced with the ending -es or -is. Thus, in Chaucer, the possessive of 
child is childes or childis ; that of king is kinges or kingis ; that of John is 
John'es or Johnis. The use of an apostrophe in the possessive is a compara- 
tively modern device, due to a misunderstanding. Scholars at one time 
thought the s of the possessive a fragment of the pronoun his ; that is, they 
took such a phrase as George's book for a contraction of George his book. 
Hence they used the apostrophe before s to signify the supposed omission of 
part of the word his. Similarly, in the possessive plural, there was thought 
to be an omission of a final es; that is, such a phrase as the horses' heads was 
thought to be a contraction of the horseses heads. Both these errors have 
long been exploded. 



44 NOUNS 

91. Nouns like sheep and deer, which have the same form 
in both the singular and the plural, usually take 's in the 
possessive plural. 

Thus, the deer's tracks would be written, whether one deer or more 
were meant. 

92. Possessive Singular of Nouns ending in s. 

1. Monosyllabic nouns ending in s or an s-sound usually 
make their possessive singular by adding 's. 

Examples : Charles's hat, Forbes's garden, Mr. Wells's daughter, 
Rice's carriage, Mrs. Dix's family, a fox's brush. 

Note. Most of these monosyllabic nouns in s are family names. The rule 
accords with the best usage ; but it is not absolute, for usage varies. Hence 
forms like Charles' and Wells' cannot be condemned as positively wrong, 
though Charles's and Wells's are preferable. In speaking, the shorter form is 
often ambiguous, for there is no difference in sound between Diz' and Dick's, 
Mr. Hills' and Mr. Hill's, Dr. Childs' and Dr. Child's. 

2. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in s or an s-sound, 
and not accented on the last syllable, may make their posses- 
sive singular by adding 's, or may take no ending in the pos- 
sessive. 

In the latter case, an apostrophe is added in writing, but in 
sound there is no difference between the possessive and the 
nominative. 

Examples : Burrows's (or Burrows') Hotel, iEneas's (or ^Eneas') 
voyage, Beatrice's (or Beatrice') gratitude, Felix's (or Felix') arrival, 
for conscience's (or conscience') sake. 

Most of the nouns in question are proper names. In speak- 
ing, one must often use the longer form to prevent ambiguity ; 
for Williams' and William's, Roberts' and Robert's, Robbins' 
and Robin's, are indistinguishable in sound. 

Note. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in s or an s-sound and ac- 
cented on the last syllable, follow the rule for monosyllables. Thus, — Laplace's 
mathematics (not Laplace') ; Alphonse's father (not Alphonse'). 

When final s is silent (as in many French names) , 's must of course be added 
in the possessive. Thus, — Descartes' s philosophy (pronounced Day cart's). 



USE OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE 45 

Use of the Possessive Case 

93. x Possession may be denoted by a phrase with of as well 
as by the possessive case. The distinction between the two 
forms cannot be brought under rigid rules, but the following 
suggestions will be of use. 

I. In older English and in poetry the possessive case of 
nouns is freely used, but in modern prose it is rare unless the 
possessor is a living being. A phrase with of is used instead. 

The mayor of Detroit (not Detroit 1 s may or), i^ 

The top of the post (not the posVs top). 

The prevalence of the epidemic (not the epidemic 1 s prevalence). 

Contrast the poetic use : — 

Belgium 1 s capital had gathered then 
Her beauty and her chivalry. — Byron. 

Other prepositions are sometimes used : as, — " the explosion in New York " 
(not " New York's explosion "), " the station at Plymouth." 

II. When the possessor is a living being, good usage varies. 

1 . If there is actual ownership or possession of some material thing, the 
possessive case is generally used in the singular : as, — M John's hat " (not 
f f the hat of John " ) . The possessive plural, however, is often replaced by 
a phrase with of to avoid ambiguity or harshness : as, — " the jewels 
of the ladies 11 (rather than "the ladies 1 jewels") 2 , "the wings of the 
geese " (rather than u the geese 1 s wings "). 

2. With nouns denoting a quality, an act, or the like, either the pos- 
sessive or the o/-phrase is proper: as, — " Johrts generosity," or "the 
generosity of John " ; " John's condition," or " the condition of John " ; 
f f the guided efforts," or " the efforts of the guide " ; " Ccesa^s death," or 
" the death of Ccesar" 

When there is any choice, it usually depends on euphony (that is, agree- 
able sound), and is therefore a question of style. Sometimes, however, 
there is a distinction in sense. " Johrts fear," for example, indicates that 
John is afraid ; but " the fear of John " means the fear which John inspires 
in others. 

1 This section is intended chiefly for reference. 

2 Note the ambiguity to the ear though not to the eye. 



46 NOUNS 

III. The following phrases are established idioms with the 
possessive. In some of them, however, the possessive may be 
replaced by o/and its object. 

(1) The earth's surface, the sun's rays, the moon's reflection, the pit's 
mouth, a rope's end, his journey's end, at his wit's end, the ship's keel, 
the water's edge, the cannon's mouth, out of harm's way, at swords' 
points, for pity's sake, for conscience' sake ; (2) a moment's pause, a 
year's time, a hand's breadth, a boat's length, a month's salary, a week's 
notice, a night's rest, a day's work, a stone's throw, a feather's weight, 
an hour's delay, a dollar's worth, not a foot's difference. 

In the second group of phrases ( ff a moment's pause," etc.), the pos- 
sessive denotes not ownership, but measure or extent. 

IV. The possessive case of certain pronouns (my, our, your, 
his, her, its, their) is more freely used than that of nouns in 
expressions that do not denote actual ownership. 

I know him to my sorrow. [Compare : to his loss, to our detriment, 
to his advantage.] 

The brass has lost its polish. 

This question must be decided on its merits. 

His arguments did not fail of their effect. 

For the inflection of these pronouns, see § 115. For the use of whose, see § 152. 

94. When a thing belongs to two or more joint owners, the 
sign of the possessive is added to the last name only. 

Brown, Jones, and Richardson's factories. [Brown, Jones, and Rich- 
ardson are partners.] 

It is George and William's turn to take the boat. [George and Wil- 
liam are to go in the boat together.] 

On the other hand, in order to avoid ambiguity we should say, 
"Brown's, Jones's, and Richardson's factories," if each individual had 
a factory of his own ; and " George's and William's answers were cor- 
rect," if each boy answered independently of the other. 

95. In compound nouns the last part takes the possessive 
sign. So also when a phrase is used as a noun. 

My father-in-law 1 s home is in Easton. 
We had a quarter of an hour's talk. 



OBJECTIVE CASE 47 

Other examples are the following : — 

My brother-in-law's opinion ; the commander-in-chief's orders ; the 
lady-in-waiting's duties ; the coal dealer's prices ; Edward VII's reign ; 
the King of England's portrait ; half a year's delay ; in three or four 
months' time ; a cable and a half's length ; the pleasure of Major Pen- 
dennis and Mr. Arthur Pendennis's company (Thackeray). 

Note. Noun-phrases often contain two substantives, the second of which 
is in apposition with the first. In such phrases, of is generally preferable to 
the possessive. Thus, we may say either " Tom the blacksmith's daughter " or 
" the daughter of Tom the blacksmith " ; but " the son of Mr. Hill the carpen- 
ter" is both neater and clearer than "Mr. Hill the carpenter's son." The use 
of 's is also avoided with a very long phrase like " the owner of the house on 
the other side of the street." 

An objective may stand in apposition with a possessive, the latter being 
equivalent to o/with an object. Thus, — "I am not yet of Percy's mind [ = of 
the mind of Percy] , the Hotspur of the North " (Shakspere). 

96. The noun denoting the object possessed is often omitted 
when it may be readily understood, especially in the predicate. 

ConanVs [shop] is open until noon. 
I buy my hats at BryanVs [shop]. 
We will dine at PennocVs [restaurant]. 
That camera is mine. (See § 122.) 

This construction is common in such expressions as : — 

He was a relative of John's. 

That careless tongue of John's will get him into trouble. 

In the first example, " a relative of John's" means " a relative of (=from 
among) John's relatives." The second example shows an extension of this 
construction by analogy. See § 122. 



Objective Case 

97. The objective case, as its name implies, is the case of the 
object. Most of its uses are covered by the following rule : — 

The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case. 

The object of a preposition has already been explained and 
denned (§§20-21). 



48 NOUNS 

98. The object of a verb may be (1) the direct object, (2) the 
predicate objective, (3) the indirect object, (4) the cognate ob- 
ject. Of these the direct object is the most important. 

The objective is also used (5) adverbially (§ 109), (6) in ap- 
position with another objective (§ 110), and (7) as the subject 
of an infinitive (§ 111). 

1. Direct Object 

99. Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that 
which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transi- 
tive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive. 

1. That man struck my dog. 

2. The arrow hit the target. 

3. Caesar conquered Gaul. 

4. Mr. Holland sells flour. 

5. The farmer raises corn. 

6. Mr. Eaton makes stoves. 

7. My grandfather built that house. 

In Nos. 1-4, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the 
receiver of the action. Thus, in the first sentence, the dog receives 
the blow ; in the second, the target receives the action of hit- 
ting. In Nos. 5~7, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the 
product of the action. For example, the corn is produced by the 
action expressed by the verb raises. 

In each example, the noun that follows the verb completes 

the sense of the verb. "That man struck -." "Struck 

whom?" "He struck the dog." Until dog is added the sense 
of the verb struck is incomplete. 

100. A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb 
is called its direct object, and is said to be in the objective case. 

Thus, in the examples above, dog is the direct object of the transitive 
verb struck ; target is the direct object of hit, — and so on. Each of these 
nouns is therefore in the objective case. 

The direct object is often called the object complement, or the object of the 
verb. 



DIRECT OBJECT 49 

101. Intransitive verbs have no object. 

The lion roared. 
The visitor coughed gently. 
The log drifted downstream. 
We all listened intently. 

Compare these sentences with those in § 99. We observe 
that the verbs (unlike those in § 99) admit no object, since 
their meaning is complete without the addition of any noun 
to denote the receiver or product of the action. " The man 

struck " prompts the inquiry, w Struck whom ? " But no 

such question is suggested by w The lion roared " ; for K Eoared 
what ? " would be an absurdity. 

102. The predicate nominative (§ 88, 2) must not be confused 
with the direct object. They resemble each other in two particu- 
lars : (1) both stand in the predicate, and (2) both complete 
the meaning of the verb. But they differ utterly in their 
relation to the subject of the sentence. For — 

The predicate nominative describes or defines the subject. Hence 
both substantives denote the same person or thing. 

fL 1 

Charles [subject] -j , )- captain [predicate nominative]. 

l^was elected J 

The direct object neither describes nor defines the subject. 
On the contrary, it designates that upon which the subject 
acts. Hence the two substantives regularly 1 denote different 

persons or things. 

f struck James [object] . 
Charles [subject] -J threw a stone [object]. 
[built a boat [object]. 

Both the direct object and the predicate nominative are 
classed as complements, because they are used to complete the 
sense of the predicate verb (§ 483). 

1 The only exception is in reflexive action, where the object is a compound 
personal pronoun ("Charles deceived himself"). See § 126. 



50 NOUNS 

103. A verb of asking sometimes takes two direct objects, one 
denoting the person and the other the thing. 

She asked the boy his name. 

Ask me no favors. 

I asked the lawyer his opinion. 



2. Predicate Objective 

104. Verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking may take 
two objects referring to the same person or thing. 

The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes 
the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objective. 

We chose Oscar president. [Oscar is the direct object of chose; presi- 
dent is the predicate objective.] 
I call John my friend. 
They thought the man a coward. 
Make my house your home. 

The predicate objective is often called the complementary object or the objective 
attribute. It is classed as a complement. 

An adjective may serve as predicate objective. 

I call this ship unseaworthy. 

Your letter made your sister anxious. 

What makes Edwin so careless ? 



3. Indirect Object and Similar Idioms 

105. Some verbs of giving, telling, refusing, and the like, may take two 
objects, a direct object and an indirect object. 

The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or 
toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate. 



Direct Object only 



Direct Object and Indirect 
Object 



Dick sold his bicycle. Dick sold John his bicycle. 

I gave permission. I gave this man permission . 

He paid a dollar. He paid the gardener a dollar. 

She taught Latin. She taught my children Latin. 



INDIRECT OBJECT AND SIMILAR IDIOMS 51 

Most of the verbs that admit an indirect object are included 
in the following list : — 

allot, allow, assign, bequeath, bring, deny, ensure, fetch, fling, forbid, 
forgive, give, grant, guarantee, hand, lease, leave, lend, let, owe, pardon, 
pass, pay, refund, refuse, remit, restore, sell, send, show, sing, spare, 
teach, tell, throw, toss, vouchsafe. 

Pronouns are commoner as indirect objects than nouns. 

They denied her the necessities of life. 
I guaranteed them a handsome profit. 
The king vouchsafed them an audience. 

It is always possible to insert the preposition to before the indirect 
object without changing the sense. 

Since the indirect object is equivalent to an adverbial phrase, 
it is classed as a modifier of the verb. 

Thus, in fr Dick sold John his bicycle," John is an adverbial modifier 
of the predicate verb sold. 

The indirect object is sometimes used without a direct object 

expressed. Thus, — 

He paid the hatter. 

Here hatter may be recognized as an indirect object by inserting to before 
it and adding a direct object (" his bill," " his money " or the like). 

106. The objective case sometimes expresses the person for 
whom anything is done. 

William made his brother a kite [ = made a kite for his brother] . 
Sampson built me a boat [ = built a boat for me] . 

This construction may be called the objective of service. 

Note. The objective of service is often included under the head of the 
indirect object. But the two constructions differ widely in sense, and should 
be carefully distinguished. To do an act to a person is not the same thing as 
to do an act for a person. Contrast " John paid the money to me," with '" John 
paid the money for me"; "Dick sold a bicycle to me," with "Dick sold a 
bicycle for me." 



52 NOUNS 

107. The objective case is used after like, unlike, near, and 
next, which are really adjectives or adverbs, though in this 
construction they are often regarded as prepositions. 

She sang like a bird. [Like is an adverb.] *"^ 

The earth is like a ball. [Like is an adjective.] 

My office is near the station. [Near is an adjective.] 

That answer was unlike Joseph. [Unlike is an adjective.] *~^ 

This man walks unlike Joseph. [Unlike is an adverb.] 

A stream ran near the hut. [Near is an adverb.] 

The use of the objective after these words is a peculiar idiom 
similar to the indirect object (§ 105). The nature of the con- 
struction may be seen (as in the indirect object) by inserting 
to or unto (" She sang like unto a bird "). 

Note. The indirect object, the objective of service, and the objective after 
like, unlike, and near are all survivals of old dative constructions. Besides 
the case of the direct object (often called accusative), English once had a case 
(called the dative) which meant to or for [somebody or something]. The dative 
case is easily distinguished in Greek, Latin, and German, but in English it 
has long been merged in form with the ordinary objective. 



4. Cognate Object 

108. A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object 
a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own. 

A noun in this construction is called the cognate object of the verb 
and is in the objective case. 

He ran a race. 

The mayor coughed a dubious, insinuating cough. 

A scornful laugh laughed he. 

The trumpeter blew a loud blast. 

She sleeps the sleep of death. 

Note. Cognate means " kindred" or "related." The cognate object re- 
peats the idea of the verb, often with some modification, and may be classed 
as an adverbial modifier. Its difference from the direct object may be seen 
by contrasting "The blacksmith struck the anvil" with "The blacksmith 
struck a mighty blow " (cf. " struck mightily ")• For the pronoun it as cog- 
nate object, see § 120. 



ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE 53 

5. Adverbial Objective 

109. A noun, or a phrase consisting of a noun and its modifiers, may 
be used adverbially. Such a noun is called an adverbial objective. 

We have waited years for this reform. 

I am years older than you are. 

The river is miles away. 

The water rose three feet. 

This is an inch too long. 

My brother is twenty years old. 

I will stay a short time. 

Wait a moment. 

Come here this instant ! 

Turn your eyes this way. 

This silk is several shades too light. 

A group of words consisting of an adverbial object with its 
modifier or modifiers forms an adverbial phrase (§ 41). 



6. Objective in Apposition 

110. A substantive in apposition with an objective is itself 
in the objective case. 

Yesterday I saw Williams the expressman. [Apposition with the direct 
object of saw.] 

Tom gave his friend John a book. [Apposition with the indirect object 
friend.] 

He lives with Andrews the blacksmith. [Apposition with the object of 
the preposition with.] 

This rule follows from the general principle that an apposi- 
tive is in the same case as the substantive to which it is 
attached (§ 88, 5). 

7. Subject of an Infinitive 

111. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case. 
This construction will be treated in connection with the uses 

of the infinitive (§ 325). 



54 NOUNS 

Parsing 

112. To parse a word is to describe its grammatical form 
and to give its construction. 

In parsing a noun, we mention the class to which it belongs, 
give its gender, number, person, and case, and tell why it is in 
that case. Thus, — 

1. Frank shot a wolf. 

Frank is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular num- 
ber and third person. It is in the nominative case, because it is the sub- 
ject of the verb shot. 

Wolf is a common noun of the masculine or feminine [or common] 
gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the objective 
case, because it is the object [or direct object] of the transitive verb shot. 

2. Jane, come here. 

Jane is a proper noun of the feminine gender, in the singular number 
and second person. It is in the nominative case, being used as a vocative 
(or in direct address). 

3. The rope is fifteen feet long. 

Feet is a common noun of the neuter gender, in the plural number 
and third person. It is in the objective case, being used as an adverbial 
modifier of the adjective long. 

4. Edgar's boat is a sloop. 

Edgar's is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular 
number and third person. It is in the possessive case, modifying the 
noun boat. 



PERSONAL PKONOUNS 55 

CHAPTER III 
PRONOUNS 

113. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a 
person, place, or thing without naming it. 

The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent. 
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and 
person (§ 11). 

Pronouns have in general the same constructions as nouns. 

114. Pronouns may be classified as (1) personal, (2) adjective, 
(3) relative, and (4) interrogative. 

Under adjective pronouns are included (a) demonstrative pro- 
nouns and (U) indefinite pronouns. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

115. The personal pronouns serve to distinguish (i) the speaker, 
(2) the person spoken to, and (3) the person, place, or thing spoken 
of (§ 85). 

They are declined as follows : ■ — 

The Pronoun of the First Person : I 

SINGULAR PLURAL 

Nominative I Nominative we 

Possessive my or mine Possessive our or ours 

Objective me Objective us 

The Pronoun of the Second Person : thou 

SINGULAR PLURAL 

Nominative thou Nominative you or ye 

Possessive thy or thine Possessive your or yours 

Objective thee Objective you or ye 



56 PEONOUNS 

The Pronoun op the Third Person : he, she, it 

Singular Plural 

masculine, feminine, 



MASCULINE 


FEMININE 


NEUTER 


and neuter 


Nominative he 


she 


it 


they 


Possessive his 


her or hers 


its 


their or theirs 


Objective him 


her 


it 


them 



Unlike nouns, most of the personal pronouns have distinct 
forms for the nominative and the objective. 

Note. The possessive case of personal pronouns never has the apostrophe. 
Thus, — its, yours, theirs. 

The form it's is proper only as a contraction of it is. 

GENDER AND NUMBER 

116. The pronouns of the first and second persons (I and 
thou) may be either masculine or feminine. 

The pronouns of the third person have different forms for 
masculine, feminine, and neuter in the singular (he, she, it) ; 
but in the plural the form they serves for all three genders. 

Note. In the oldest English his was both masculine and neuter. The 
neuter use lasted until the seventeenth century. Thus, — 

That same eye whose bend doth awe the world 

Did lose his lustre. — Shakspere, Julius Caesar, i. 2. 123. 

117. Thou, thy, thine, thee, and ye are old forms still found 
in poetry and the solemn style. 

In ordinary prose, you, your, and yours are the only forms 
used for the second person, whether singular or plural. Yet 
you, even when denoting a single person, always takes the verb- 
forms that go with plural subjects. Thus, — 

My friend, you were [not was'] in error. 

Hence you may best be regarded as always plural in form, but 
may be described as singular in sense when it stands for one 
person only. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS 57 

Note. Members of the Society of Friends (commonly called Quakers) and 
of some other religious bodies use thee and thy in their ordinary conversation. 

Ye was formerly the regular nominative plural, and you the objective ; 
but the forms were afterwards confused. Ye has gone out of use except in 
poetry and the solemn style, and you is now the regular form for both nomi- 
native and objective. 

Where an objective form ye is found printed instead of you (as often in 
Shakspere, — M A southwest blow on ye "), it represents an indistinct pronun- 
ciation of you rather than the old nominative ye. This indistinct sound may 
still be heard in rapid or careless speech (" I '11 tell yer the truth "). 

Ye as an abbreviation for the (as in " ye old town ") has nothing to do with 
the pronoun ye. The y simply stands for the character \> (an old sign for th), 
and the abbreviation was pronounced the, never ye. 

118. They, you, and ice are often used indefinitely for " one " 
or rt people in general." 

They say that Joe has gone to sea. 

To shut off the steam, you close both valves of the radiator. 

Note. We, our, and us are used in editorial articles instead of I", my, and 
me, because the writer represents the whole editorial staff. This practice 
should not be followed in ordinary composition. 

A sovereign ruler may use we, our, and us when speaking of himself in 
proclamations and other formal documents. This construction is often called 
" the plural of majesty." Thus, — 

Know that we have divided 

In three our kingdom. — Shakspere. 

The form 'em (as in "Tell me your counsels; I will not disclose 'em," in 
Julius Caesar) is not a contraction of them, but of hem, an old objective 
plural of he. 

CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

Nominative Case 

119. Nominative constructions of the personal pronouns are the 
same as those of nouns (§ 88). 

I am ready. [Subject.] 

It is I. [Predicate nominative.] 

Here, you rascal, what are you about? [Vocative, direct address.] 

Poor you! [Nominative of exclamation.] 

General Austin, he and no other, won the battle. [Apposition.] 

For the nominative absolute, see § 345. 



58 PRONOUNS 

Care must be taken not to use an objective form when a 
predicate nominative is required. 

It is I [not me]. 

It is we [not us] who did it. 

It was he [not him] who told us. 

It was they [not them] who were to blame. 

120. It has several peculiar uses in the nominative. 

1. It is used as the subject in many expressions like "It 
rains/' w It snows," Rt It lightens," w It is cold," where no 
definite subject is thought of. In this use, it is said to be 
impersonal. 

Note. An impersonal it also occurs as a cognate object (§ 108) in colloquial 
language : as, — " Hang it ! " " Go it ! " " He went it." " He farmed it for a 
year." Other examples of the indefinite and impersonal it in various construc- 
tions are: "We are roughing it." "Keep it up." "You'll catch it." "Let 
it all go." " He made a poor job of it." " He made a success of it." 

2. It often serves as grammatical subject merely to introduce 
the verb is, the real subject of the thought standing in the 
predicate. In this use it is called an expletive (or ^filler"). 

It is he. 

It is Christmas. 

It was a tiresome ride. 

In these examples, the subject of the thought (he, Christ- 
mas, ride) appears as a predicate nominative. 

3. The antecedent of it is often a group of words. 

Wearing tight shoes is foolish. It deforms the feet. 

121. In imperative sentences the subject (you) is commonly 
omitted : as, — " Shut the door." 

Note. The subject I is sometimes omitted in wishes (as, " Would he were 
here! " for "I would that he were here")- So also in "Thank you," "Pray 
tell me " (compare prithee for " I pray thee "). 

Expressions like "Canst tell?" (for "Canst thou tell?"), "Art there?" 
(for " Art thou there ? ") are common in poetry and older English. These come 
from the gradual wearing away and final disappearance of the pronoun thou 
{canst thou, canstow, canste, canst). 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS 59 

Possessive Case 

122. The possessive forms my, thy, our, your, her, and their 
are used when a noun follows ; mine, thine, ours, yours, hers, 
and theirs cannot be followed by a noun, and stand commonly 
in the predicate. His may be used in either way. 

My brother has arrived. The fault is mine. 

Our work is done. Those seats are ours. 

I have torn your glove. This pencil is yours. 

Their turn has come. That field is theirs. 

His hair is black. The book is not his. 

Examples of mine, yours, etc. not in the predicate are : 

Mine was a terrier ; yours was a pointer. 

Theirs is a red motor car. 

Ours broke down last night. 

His leaked badly. 

His name is Martin ; hers is Smith. 

In such cases the pronoun is always emphatic. The construction is chiefly 
colloquial. 

Note. In older English and in poetry mine and thine are common instead 
of my and thy before words beginning with a vowel or h : as, — 

Mine eyes dazzle : she died young. — John Webster. 
The very minute bids thee ope thine ear. — Shakspere. 

Mine is sometimes used after a vocative noun : as, — brother mine. 
For expressions like "a friend of mine," "that unruly tongue of yours," 
see § 96. 

123. When two or more separate objects are spoken of as 
possessed, a possessive should precede the name of each if there 
is danger of ambiguity. 

I will send for our secretary and our treasurer. [Two persons.] 
I will send for our secretary and treasurer. [One person.] 
I have called for my bread and my milk. [Two things.] 
I have called for my bread and milk. [A mixture.] 
Have you Bacon's ff Essays and Apophthegms " ? [One book.] 
Have you Bacon's ff Essays " and his "Advancement of Learning " ? 
[Two books.] 



60 PEONOUNS 

Objective Case 

124. The commonest constructions in which personal pro- 
nouns take the objective case are the following : — 

1. Object of a preposition (§ 97) : as, — 

Take it from him. 

2. Direct object of a transitive verb (§ 99) : as, — 

I will find you. 

3. Indirect object of a transitive verb (§ 105) : as, — 

He gave me a dollar. 

4. Subject of an infinitive (see § 325). 

Note. In poetry the objective me is sometimes used in exclamations : as, — 
" Me miserable! " (Milton). 

In methinks and meseems (" it seems to me "), me is a remnant of the old 
dative, as in the indirect object (see § 107). 

The compounds thereof, therewith, therefrom, etc., are equivalent to of it, 
with it, from it, etc. : as, — " Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto aU 
the inhabitants thereof" (Leviticus xxv. 10). 

For the impersonal it as cognate object, see § 120. 

THE SJSXIMPRONOUNS (COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS) 

125. The three compound personal pronouns are made by adding 
the word self to certain forms of the personal pronouns. Thus, — 

myself, plural ourselves ; 

thyself or yourself, plural yourselves ; 

himself, herself, itself, plural themselves. 

To these may be added the indefinite oneself, more commonly written as 
two words, one's self (§ 139) . 

Observe that yourself is singular, and yourselves plural. 
Hisself and theirselves are incorrect forms. Ourself (not our- 
selves) is the compound pronoun corresponding to the royal we 
(§ 118). 

What touches us ourself shall be last served. — Shakspere. 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PEONOUNS 61 

126. 1. The compound personal pronouns may be used to emphasize 
substantives. 

In this use they are called intensive pronouns. 

I myself will go. 

King Alfred himself took the field. 

They did the work themselves. 

An intensive pronoun is in apposition with the substantive 
to which it refers. 

2. The compound personal pronouns may be used as the objects of 
transitive verbs or of prepositions when the object denotes the same 
person or thing as the subject. 

In this use they are called reflexive pronouns. 

I have hurt myself. 

King Alfred interested himself in his subjects. 

These schemers deceived themselves. 

Mary was talking to herself. 

He gave himself a holiday. [Indirect object.] 

These pronouns are called reflexive (that is, " bending back ") 
because they refer back to the subject and repeat its meaning in 
an object construction. 

Note. A reflexive pronoun sometimes refers to a substantive in the objec- 
tive case : as, — " Our captors left us to ourselves." 

In older English the simple personal pronouns me, thee, etc., were often 
used reflexively : as, — "I held me [= myself] still " ; " Yield thee [— thyself] 
captive w ; " They built them [=for themselves] houses " (see § 106). This idiom 
survives in colloquial language (as, "I have hurt me," " I have bought me a 
rifle "), but it is avoided in writing except in a few expressions such as: "I 
must look about me " ; " We gazed about us " ; M Look behind you." 

127. The adjective own is sometimes inserted between the 
first and the second part of the ^/-pronouns for emphasis. 

Examples : my own self, your own self, his own self, our own selves, 
their own selves. 

In this use, self is in strictness a noun limited by the possessive and by the 
adjective own, but the phrases may be regarded as compound pronouns. Other 
adjectives are sometimes inserted between the possessive and self: as, — my 
very self, his worthless self. 



62 



PBONOUNS 



128. The intensive pronouns are sometimes used without a 
substantive. Thus, — 

It is myself. [Myself = I myself] 
You are hardly yourself to-day. 

In poetry and older English, the intensives are even found as subjects: 
as, — " Ourself will mingle with society " (Macbeth). 

129. The intensive pronouns should not be used as simple 
personal pronouns. 

Thus we should say : — "He was kind to Mary and me " (not myself) ; 
"They invited my wife and me (not myself)." 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 

130. Some words are used either as adiectives or as pronouns. Such 
words are called adjective pronouns. 

Adjective pronouns are classified, according to their mean- 
ing, as (1) demonstrative pronouns and (2) indefinite pronouns. 



I. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 

131. The demonstratives are this (plural, these), that (plural, those). 
They point out persons or things for special attention. 

The demonstratives may be used either as adjectives or as 
pronouns. 



I. As adjectives : — 

This sailor saved my life. 
Be kind to this child. 
Give this boy a dime. 
This fire is too hot. 
That saw is dull. 
We must cross that stream. 
That train is late. 
Send that dog home. 
I am tired of that tune. 



These girls are energetic. 

I am not alarmed by these threats. 

These cherries are sour. 

Look at these acorns. 

Those trees are dying. 

Take those dishes away. 

Who are those strangers ? 

Do you see those rocks? 

I am sorry for those children. 



DEMONSTRATIVE PEONOUNS 



63 



II. As pronouns : — 

This is a fine morning. 1 

This is my uncle. 

Can you do this f 

This is the road. 

Look at this. 

That is Ellen in the canoe. 

That would please him. 

That must be he. 

What is that f 



These are cowboys. 
Robert gave me these. 
I never saw these before. 
Who are these ? 
These are our rackets. 
Those are deer. 
Those are nasturtiums. 
What are those f 
Those are kangaroos. 



If the demonstrative is followed by a noun which it limits (as in 
"this sailor 1 '), it is an adjective. If the demonstrative points out some- 
thing which it does not name (as in " This is a fine morning"), it takes 
the place of a noun and is therefore a pronoun. The simple subject of 
the sentence "This camera is expensive" is the noun camera, which is 
modified by the adjective this. The subject of the sentence " This is 
expensive " is the pronoun this. 

Note. Yon, yond, and yonder are common as demonstratives in older Eng- 
lish and in poetry. Thus, — "Nerissa, cheer yon stranger" (Merchant of 
Venice). "Question yond man" (As You Like It). "Is not yond Diomed ?" 
(Troilus and Cressida). " Call yonder fellow hither" (Henry V). "Is yonder 
the man ? " (As You Like It). 

132. Demonstratives have only the inflection of number. 
They have the same form for all three genders. The nomina- 
tive and objective cases are alike; the possessive is replaced 
by of with the objective. 



Singular 


Plural 


Nom. and Obj. this Nom. and Obj. 
Possessive [of this] Possessive 


these 
[of these] 


Nom. and Obj. that Nom. and Obj. 
Possessive [of that] Possessive 


those 
[of those] 


i, yond, and yonder are not inflected. 





1 The pupil should not " supply nouns " in such sentences as these. For ex- 
ample, it is unscientific to expand the first sentence into " This [morning] is a 
fine morning," and then to parse this as an adjective. It is even more objec- 
tionable to expand the fifth sentence by inserting thing or the like after this. 
The plan of " supplying " unexpressed words (as being " understood ") tends 
to confuse real distinctions of language, and should never be resorted to when 
it can be avoided. 



64 PEONOUNS 

133. A demonstrative pronoun may be used to avoid the 
repetition of a noun. 

My dog and that [ = the dog] of my friend John have been fighting. 
Compare these maps with those [= the maps] on the blackboard. 

134. The singular forms this and that (not the plurals these 
and those) are used with the nouns kind and sort. 

I like this kind of grapes. 

I have met this sort of people before. 

That kind of apples grows in Idaho. 

n. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 

135. The indefinite pronouns point out objects less clearly or defi- 
nitely than demonstratives do. 

Examples : each, every, either, both, neither, some, any, such, none, 
other, another, each other, one another. 

Each has its merits. Either is correct. 

Some are missing. He knows neither of you. 

I cannot give you any. I like both. 

136. Most indefinites may be either pronouns or adjectives. 
But none is always a substantive in modern use, and every is 
always an adjective. 

137. None may be either singular or plural. When it means 
distinctly not one, it is singular. In many instances either con- 
struction is permissible. 

None of us has the key. 

None was (or were) left to tell the tale. 

138. Each other and one another are regarded as compound 
pronouns. They designate related persons or things. 

My neighbor and I like each other. 
We must bear with one another. 

The relation indicated by these pronouns is that of reciprocity. Hence they 
are often called reciprocal pronouns. 

There is no real distinction between each other and one another. The rules 
sometimes given for such a distinction are not supported by the best usage- 



INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 65 

139. One (possessive one's) is often used as an indefinite 
personal pronoun. Thus, — 

One does not like one's [not his or their ] motives to be doubted. 

The use of his (for one's) to refer back to a preceding one is found in 
respectable writers, but is contrary to the best usage. 
For the indefinite use of we, you, they, see § 118. 

140. All, several, few, many, and similar words are often 
classed as indefinites. They may be used as adjectives or as 
substantives. Everybody, everything, anybody, anything, some- 
what, aught, naught, 1 etc., are called indefinite nouns. 

141. Care should be taken in framing such sentences as the 
following : — 

Everybody has his [not their] faults. 
If anybody wishes to go, he [not they] may. 
If anybody objects, let him [not them] speak. 

Every member of this class must hand in his [not their] composition 
to-day. 

Each hurries toward his [not their] home. 
Each of us must lead his [not their] own life. 

In sentences of this kind, the personal pronoun (he, his, 
him) must be in the singular to agree with its antecedent 
(everybody, anybody, etc.) (see § 113). 

Note. When the antecedent is of common gender (as in the last example), 
the personal pronouns (he, his, him) may be regarded as of common gender 
also. In very precise or formal language, one may say he or she, his or her : 
as, — "Each of us must lead his or her own life " ; but this form of expression 
is to be avoided unless the distinction is clearly necessary. 

142. When used as adjectives, none of the indefinites have 
any forms of inflection. The same is true when they are pro- 
nouns, except as follows : — 

Others is used as the plural of another. The possessive forms are : — 
singular, another's; plural, others' . The other (possessive, the other's) has 
in the plural the others (possessive, the others 1 ). Each other and one another 
add 's in the possessive. One has a possessive one's; the one becomes the 
ones in the plural. 

1 The negative not (§ 190, 4) is merely a shortened form of naught. 



66 PEONOUNS 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

143. Relative pronouns have a peculiar function in the sen- 
tence, since they serve both as pronouns and as connectives. Their 
use may be seen by comparing the two sentences that follow : — 

1. This is the sailor, and he saved my life. 

2. This is the sailor who saved my life. 

Each consists of two parts or clauses (§ 44). In No. 1, the two 
clauses are connected by the conjunction and, which belongs 
to neither ; the pronoun he, which stands for sailor, is the sub- 
ject of the second clause. In No. 2, there is no conjunction ; 
instead, we find the word who, which replaces and he. This 
who is a pronoun, since it stands for sailor (precisely as he does 
in No. 1) and (like he) is the subject of the verb saved. But 
who is also a connective, since it joins the two parts of the sen- 
tence as and does in No. 1. Such words (which serve both as 
pronouns and as connectives) are called relative pronouns. 

In No. 1, the two clauses are coordinate. Neither serves as a 
modifier, and each might stand alone as a complete sentence 
(" This is the sailor.'' " He saved my life "). The sentence is 
compound (§ 44). In No. 2, on the contrary, the clause who 
saved my life is a subordinate or dependent clause, for it is used 
as an adjective modifier of the noun sailor, which it limits by 
showing what particular sailor is meant. The sentence is complex 
(§ 44). The dependent clause (who saved my life) is connected 
with the main clause (this is the sailor) by the pronoun who, 
which refers to sailor. 

144. Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses 
by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause. 1 

This substantive is the antecedent of the relative (§ 11). 

Thus in § 143 the noun sailor is the antecedent of who. 

Relative means "carrying back." These pronouns are so called because 
they carry the mind back directly to the antecedent. 

1 Because of their use as connectives, relative pronouns are sometimes 
called conjunctive pronouns. 



EELATIVE PRONOUNS 67 

145. The simple relative pronouns are who, which, that, as, 
and what. 

Who and which are declined as follows in both the singular 
and the plural : — 



Nominative 


who 


which 


Possessive 


whose 


whose 


Objective 


whom 


which 



That, as, and what are not inflected. They have the same 
form for both nominative and objective and are not used in 
the possessive case. 

146. As may be used as a relative pronoun when such 
stands in the main clause. 

Such of you as have finished may go. 

I have never seen such strawberries as these [are]. 

Use such powers as you have. 

147. As is often used as a relative after the same. 

This color is the same as that [is]. 

Other relatives are also used after the same. 

This is the same book that (or which) you were reading yesterday. 
This is the same man that (or whom) I saw on the pier last Friday. 

148. Who is either masculine or feminine ; which and what 
are neuter ; that and as are of all three genders. 

All who heard, approved. 

Here is the lad whose story interested you. 

The first woman whom I saw was Mary. 

He answered in such English as he could muster. 

I saw nobody tliat I knew. 

This is the road that leads to London. 

In older English the which is often used for which : as, — 

Our foster-nurse of nature is repose, 
The which he lacks. — Shakspere. 

For other uses of as, see §§ 368, 428-429. For but in such sentences as 
" There was nobody but believed him," see § 370. 



68 PBONOUNS 

149. A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, 
number, and person. 

The sentences in § 148 illustrate the agreement of the rela- 
tive with its antecedent in gender. 

Since relative pronouns have the same form for both num- 
bers and for all three persons, their number and person must be 
discovered, in each instance, by observing the number and 
person of the antecedent. 

It is I who am wrong. [First person, singular number : antecedent, I.] 

Ali you who are ready may go. [Second person plural : antecedent, 
you.] 

Give help to him who needs it. [Third person, singular : antecedent, 
him.] 

The road that leads to the shore is sandy. [Third person singular : 
antecedent, road.] 

The roads that lead to the shore are sandy. [Third person plural : 
antecedent, roads.] 

To determine the number and person of a relative pronoun 
is particularly necessary when it is the subject of the clause, for 
the form of the verb varies (as the examples show) according 
to the number and person of the subject (§ 222), Hence the 
rule for the agreement of a relative with its antecedent is of 
much practical importance. 

150. The case of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its ante- 
cedent, but depends on the construction of its own clause. 

The servant who opened the door wore livery. [Who is in the nomi- 
native case, being the subject of opened.] 

He discharged his servant, who immediately left town. [Who is in 
the nominative case, since it is the subject of left, although its antecedent 
(servant) is in the objective.] 

The servant whom you discharged has returned. [Whom is in the 
objective case, since it is the direct object of discharged. The antecedent 
(servant) is, on the other hand, in the nominative, because it is the subject 
of has returned.] 

Here is such money as I have. [As is in the objective case, being the 
object of have. The antecedent (money) is in the nominative.] 



EELATIVE PRONOUNS 69 

151. A relative pronoun in the objective case is often 

omitted. 

Here is the book which you wanted. Here is the book you wanted. 
The noise that I heard was the wind. The noise I heard was the wind. 
The man whom I met was a carpenter. The man I met was a carpenter. 

Note. In older English a relative in the nominative is often omitted : as, 
— "There's two or three of us have seen strange sights" {Julius Csesar), 
that is, " There are two or three of us who have seen," etc. The same omission 
is often made in rapid or careless colloquial speech. It is approved in clauses 
with there in such sentences as "He is one of the best men there are in the 
world" (§232). 

152. Certain questions of gender call for particular attention. 

1. Which is commonly used in referring to the lower animals 
unless these are regarded as persons. This is true even when 
he or she is used of the same animals (§ 69). 

This is the dog which I mentioned. Is n't Ae a fine fellow ? 
We have one cow which we prize highly. She is a Jersey. 

2. The possessive whose may be used of any object that 
has life. 

This is the man whose watch was stolen. 

I have a cat whose name is Tabby. 

This is the tree whose leaves were destroyed. It is quite dead. 

3. In the case of things without animal life, of which and 
whose are both common. The tendency is to prefer of which 
in prose, but whose is often used because of its more agreeable 
sound. In poetry, whose is especially frequent. 

A broad river, the name of which I have forgotten, forms the northern 
boundary of the province. 

Jack was fishing with a bamboo rod, to the end of which he had tied a 
short piece of ordinary twine. 

She was gazing into the pool, whose calm surface reflected her fea- 
tures like a mirror. ["The surface of which " would not sound so well.] 

Note. In older English, which is often used for who or whom: as, — "He 
which hath your noble father slain, pursued my life " (Hamlet) . 

The compounds whereof, wherefrom, wherewith, etc., are equivalent to of 
which, from which, etc. (cf . § 124) . Thus, — " Esau hated Jacob because of the 
blessing wherewith his father blessed him " (Genesis xxvii. 41). 



70 PKONOUNS 

DESCRIPTIVE AND RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES 

153. The clause introduced by a relative pronoun is an 
adjective clause, since it serves as an adjective modifier of the 
antecedent (§ 143). There are two different ways in which the 
antecedent may be thus modified. 

1. The Italian, who wore a flower in his coat, smiled at me. 

2. The Italian who wore a flower in his coat smiled at me. 

In the first sentence, the italicized relative clause serves 
simply to describe the Italian, not to identify him. The flower 
is a mere detail of the picture. 

In the second sentence, the relative clause serves not merely 
to describe the Italian, but also to distinguish him from all 
others. The flower is mentioned as a means of identification. 
The relative clause confines or restricts the meaning of the 
antecedent (Italian). 

154. A relative pronoun that serves merely to introduce a descriptive 
fact is called a descriptive relative. 

A relative pronoun that introduces a clause confining or limiting the 
application of the antecedent is called a restrictive relative. 

Thus in the first example in § 153, who is a descriptive 
relative; in the second, it is a restrictive relative. 

155. Before a descriptive relative we regularly make a pause 
in speaking, but never before a restrictive relative. Hence 
the rule : — 

A descriptive relative is preceded by a comma ; a restrictive relative 
is not. 

Three sailors, who were loitering on the pier, sprang to the rescue. 

A clumsy weapon, which I took for a blunderbuss, hung over the 
fireplace. 

I told the news to the first man that (or whom) I met. 

The coins that (or which) you showed me are doubloons. 

Nothing that I have ever read has moved me more profoundly than 
the third act of ff King Lear." 



RELATIVE PEONOUNS 71 

156. Who, which, and that are all used as restrictive rela- 
tives ; but some writers prefer that to which, especially in the 
nominative case. 

Note. That is not now employed as a descriptive relative, though it was 
common in this use not very long ago. Thus in 1844 Disraeli wrote : " The deer, 
that abounded, lived here in a world as savage as themselves " (Coningsby, 
book iii, chapter 5). 

The omission of the relative (§ 151) is possible only when the relative is 
restrictive. 

The boy [whom] I saw at your house has left town. [Restrictive.] 
Charles, whom I saw yesterday, had not heard the news. [Descriptive.] 



THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHAT 

157. The relative pronoun what is equivalent to that which, 
and has a double construction : — (1) the construction of the 
omitted or implied antecedent (that) ; (2) the construction of the 
relative (which) . 

What ~\ 

Thnt iihirh r was sa ^ * s true « [Here what, being equivalent to that 

which, serves as the subject both of was said and of is.] 

Tom always remembers -4 .,. , . , > is said to him. [Here what, being 

equivalent to that which, serves as both the object of remembers and as 
the subject of is said.] 

Tom always remembers < .,. uh'ch ^ ** e ^ earns - [Here what serves 
both as the object of remembers and as the object of learns.] 

In parsing what, mention both of its constructions. 

• Note. Another method of dealing with the relative what is to regard the 
whole clause (what was said; what is said to him ; what he learns) as a noun 
clause. Thus the clause what was said in the first sentence would be the sub- 
ject of is ; in the second and third sentences, the clause would be the object of 
remembers. What, in the first sentence, would be parsed as the subject of was 
said; in the second, as the subject of is said; and in the third, as the object 
of learns. Neither view is incorrect, and each has its special advantages. The 
student may well be familiar with both methods, remembering that grammar 
cannot be treated like mathematics. 



72 PKONOUNS 

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

158. The compound relative pronouns are formed by adding ever or 
soever to who, which, and what 

They are declined as follows : — 

Singular and Plural 

Nominative whoever (whosoever) whichever (whichsoever) 

Possessive whosever (whosesoever) ■ 

Objective whomever (whomsoever) whichever (whichsoever) 

Whatever (whatsoever) has no inflection. The nominative 
and the objective are alike, and the possessive is supplied by 
the phrase of whatever (of whatsoever). 

The phrase of whichever (of whichsoever) is used instead of 
whosever exactly as of which is used instead of whose (§ 152). 

159. The compound relative pronouns may include or imply their 
own antecedents and hence may have a double construction. 

Whoever calls, he must be admitted. [Here he, the antecedent of who- 
ever, is the subject of must be admitted, and whoever is the subject of calls.] 

Whoever calls must be admitted. [Here the antecedent he is omitted, 
being implied in whoever. Whoever has therefore a double construction, 
being the subject of both calls and must be admitted.] 

He shall have whatever he wishes. 
I will do whichever you say. 

In such sentences, care should be taken to use whoever and 
whomever correctly. The nominative (whoever) is required 
when the relative is the subject of its own clause. 

He asked whoever came. 

He told the story to whoever would listen. 

He asked whomever he knew. 

He told the story to whomever he met. 

160. The compound relatives are sometimes used without an 
antecedent expressed or implied. 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 73 

Whoever deserts you, I will remain faithful. 
Whomever it offends, I will speak the truth. 
Whatever he attempts, he is sure to fail. 
Whichever you choose, you will be disappointed. 

Nona. This construction is closely related to that explained in § 159. 
* % Whoever deserts you, I will remain faithful," is practically equivalent to 
"Whoever deserts you, let him desert you! I will remain faithful." No 
antecedent, however, is felt by the speaker, and hence none need be supplied 
in parsing. Compare concessive clauses (§ 401). 

161. Which, what, whichever, and whatever are often used 
as adjectives. 

Use what (or whatever) powers you have. 

Whichever plan you adopt, you have my best wishes. 

162. A noun limited by the adjectives what, whichever, and 
whatever, may have the same double construction that these 
relatives have when they are used as pronouns (§ 159). Thus, — 

Take whichever pen is not in use. [Here pen is both the direct object 
of take, and the subject of is.] 

Whoso for whosoever and whatso for whatsoever are common in older 
English. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 

, 163. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what They are 
used in asking questions. 1 

Who is your neighbor ? Which shall I take ? 

Who goes there ? Which is correct ? 

Whom have you chosen ? What did he say ? 

From whom did you learn this ? What is lacking ? 

Whose voice is that ? With what are you so delighted ? 

164. Who has a possessive whose, and an objective whom. 
Which and what are not inflected. 

Who may be either masculine or feminine ; which and what 
may be of any gender. 

1 For indirect questions, see § 441. 



74 PEONOUNS 

165. The objective whom often begins a question (as in the 
third example in § 163). Care should be taken not to write who 
for whom. 

166. Which and what are used as interrogative adjectives. 

Which street shall I take ? 
What village is this ? 

167. The interrogative adjective what may be used in a 
peculiar form of exclamatory sentence. Thus, — 

What a cold night this is ! 

What courage he must have had ! 

What! by itself often serves as an exclamation: as, — "What! do you 
really think so? " In this use what may be regarded as an interjection. 

168. In parsing pronouns the following models may be used : — 

1. He was my earliest friend. 

He is a personal pronoun of the third person. It is in the masculine 
gender, the singular number, and the nominative case, being the subject 
of the verb was. 

2. A policeman whom I met showed me the house. 

Whom is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number, 
and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, policeman. It is in the 
objective case, being the direct object of the transitive verb met. 

3. The corporal, whose name was Scott, came from Leith. 

Whose is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number, 
and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, corporal. It is in the 
possessive case, modifying the noun name. 

4. Whose birthday do we celebrate in February ? 

Whose is an interrogative pronoun in the masculine or feminine gender, 
singular number, and possessive case, modifying the noun birthday. 

5. He injured himself severely. 

Himself is a compound personal pronoun of the third person, used re- 
flexively. It is of the masculine gender, singular number, and third per- 
son, agreeing with its antecedent, he. It is in the objective case, being 
the direct object of the transitive verb injured. 



CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES 75 

CHAPTER IV 
ADJECTIVES 

CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES 

169. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive. 
An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes 

or limits. 

An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective ; one 
which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective (§ 13). 

Most adjectives are descriptive : as, — round, cold, red, angry, 
graceful, excessive, young, sudden, Roman. 

Note. Many descriptive adjectives are compound (see §64): as, — stead- 
fast, lionlike, fireproof, downright, heartsick, everlasting, brown-eyed, broad- 
shouldered, ill-tempered, dear-bought, far-fetched, never-ending, self-evident, 
self-important. " He was a matter-of-fact person." " Tom is hail-fellow-well- 
met with everybody." " This is an out-of-the-way place." " A dashing, doivn- 
at-the-heel youth answered my knock." 

170. A proper noun used as an adjective, or an adjective 
derived from a proper noun, is called a proper adjective and 
usually begins with a capital letter. 

Examples : a Panama hat, Florida oranges, a Bunsen burner ; Vir- 
ginian, Spenserian, Newtonian, Icelandic, Miltonic, Byronic, Turkish, 
English, Veronese. 

Note. Many so-called proper adjectives begin with a small letter because 
their origin is forgotten or disregarded : as, — china dishes, italic type, mes- 
meric power, a jovial air, a saturnine expression, a mercurial temperament., 
a stentorian voice. 

171. Definitive adjectives include: — pronouns used as adjec- 
tives (as, this opportunity ; those pictures ; either table ; what 
time is it ?) ; numeral adjectives (as, two stars ; the third year) ; 
the articles, a (or an) and the. 



76 ADJECTIVES 

Pronouns used as adjectives (often called pronominal ad- 
jectives) have been studied under Pronouns — demonstratives 
(§§ 131-134), indefinites (§§ 135-142), relatives (§§ 143-162), 
interrogatives (§§ 163-167). 

Numeral adjectives will be treated, along with other numerals 
(nouns and adverbs), in §§ 204-208. 

The articles will be treated in §§ 173-180. 

172. Adjectives may be classified, according to their position 
in the sentence, as attributive, appositive, and predicate adjectives. 

1. An attributive adjective is closely attached to its noun and 
regularly precedes it. 

The angry spot doth glow on Caesar's brow. 
O you hard hearts, you cruel men of Rome ! 
Yond Cassius has a lean and hungry look. 

2. An appositive adjective is added to its noun to explain it, 
like a noun in apposition (§ 88, 5). 

Noun in Apposition Appositive Adjective 

The castle, a ruin, stood on the The castle, ancient and ruinous, 

edge of the cliff. stood on the edge of the cliff. 

Bertram, the ringleader, refused Bertram, undaunted, refused to 

to surrender. surrender. 

3. A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate 
verb, but describes or limits the subject. 

Predicate adjectives are common after is (in its various forms) 
and other copulative verbs, particularly become and seem (§ 17). 

The sea is rough to-day. 

Burton soon became cautious in his judgments. 

You seem anxious about your future. 

The air grew hot and sultry. 

Our first experiment proved unsuccessful. 

The milk turned sour. 

Our agent proved trustworthy. 

Note. The construction of the predicate adjective is similar to that of the 
predicate nominative (§88, 2). Both are known as complements, because they 
complete the meaning of a verb. 



ARTICLES 77 

After look, sound, taste, smell, feel, a predicate adjective is 
used to describe the subject. Thus, — 

Your flowers look thrifty. [Not : look thriftily.] 

Their voices sound shrill. [Not : sound shrilly.] 

This apple tastes sweet. [Not : tastes sweetly.] 

The air smells good. [Not : smells well.] 

The patient feels comfortable. [Not : feels, comfortably.] 

For predicate adjectives after passive verbs, see § 492. 
For the useof an adjective as predicate objective, see § 104. 



THE AKTICLES 

173. The adjectives a (or an) and the are called articles. 

1. The definite article the points out one or more particular objects as 
distinct from others of the same kind. 

The train is late. 

Here is the key. 

The children are in the next room. 

2. The indefinite article a (or an) designates an object as merely one 
of a general class or kind. 

Lend me a pencil. 

I have a cold. 

A young man answered my knock. 

The article a is a fragment of an (pronounced ahri), the 
ancient form of the numeral one; an keeps the n, which a 
has lost. The is an old demonstrative, related to that. 

174. The with a singular noun sometimes indicates a class 
or kind of objects. 

The scholar is not necessarily a dryasdust. 
The elephant is the largest of quadrupeds. 
The aeroplane is a very recent invention. 
Resin is obtained from the pine. 

Note. In this use the is often called the generic article (from the Latin 
genus, " kind " or " sort "). The singular number with the generic the is prac- 
tically equivalent to the plural without an article. Thus in the first example 
the sense would be the same if we had, " Scholars are not necessarily dry as- 
dusts." 



78 ADJECTIVES 

175. An adjective preceded by the may be used as a plural 

noun. 

The brave are honored. 

The rich have many cares. 

The strong should protect the weak. 

176. An is used before words beginning with a vowel or silent h ; 
a before other words. Thus, — 

an owl ; an apple ; an honest man ; a stone ; a pear. 

177. Special rules for a or an are the following : — 

1. Before words beginning with the sound of y or w, the 
form a, not an, is used. 

Examples : a union, a university, a yew, a ewe, a eulogy, a Utopian 
scheme, such a one. 

This rule covers all words beginning with eu and many beginning with u. 
Note that the initial sound is a consonant, not a vowel. An was formerly 
common before such words (as, — an union, such an one), but a is now the 
settled form. 

2. Before words beginning with h and not accented on the 
first syllable, an is often used. Thus, we say — 

a his'tory; but, an historical novel. 

In such cases, the h is very weak in sound, and is sometimes quite silent, 
so that the word practically begins with a vowel. Usage varies, but careful 
writers favor the rule here given. An was formerly more common before h 
than at present. 

178. With two or more connected nouns or adjectives the 
article should be repeated whenever clearness requires (cf. §123). 

I have consulted the secretary and the treasurer. [ f f The secretary and 
treasurer " would imply that the same person held both offices.] 

I found an anchor and a chain. [ ff An anchor and chain ' ' would suggest 
that the chain was attached to the anchor.] 

In some towns there are separate schools for the boys and the girls ; 
in others the boys and girls attend the same schools. 

He waved a red and white flag. 

He waved a red and a white flag. 



COMPAKISON OF ADJECTIVES 79 

179. A is often used distributively, in the sense of each. 

I paid five dollars a pair for my shoes. 
The letter-carrier calls twice a day. 
My class meets three times a week. 

In such phrases a is better than per, except in strictly commercial language. 

180. When used with adjectives, the articles precede, except 
in a few phrases : as, — 

Such an uproar was never heard. 
Many a man has tried in vain. 

For the adverb the, which is quite distinct from the article in use and 
meaning, see § 195. 

For the preposition a (as in " He went a-fishing "), see § 352. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 

181 . In comparing objects with each other, we may use three 
different forms of the same adjective. 

Thomas is strong. 

William is stronger than Thomas. 

Herbert is strongest of the three. 

This inflection of adjectives is called comparison, and the 
three forms are called degrees of comparison. 

182. The degrees of comparison indicate by their form in what degree 
of intensity the quality described by the adjective exists. 

There are three degrees of comparison, — the positive, the compara- 
tive, and the superlative. 

1. The positive degree is the simplest form of the adjective, and has 
no special ending. 

It merely describes the quality, without expressing or sug- 
gesting any comparison. 

Thomas is strong. 
Thus, the positive degree of the adjective strong is strong. 



80 ADJECTIVES 

2. The comparative degree of an adjective is formed by adding the 
termination er to the positive degree. 

It denotes that the quality exists in the object described in 
a higher degree than in some other object. 

William is stronger than Thomas. 
Thus, the comparative degree of the adjective strong is stronger. 

3. The superlative degree is formed by adding est to the positive 1 
degree. 

It denotes that the quality exists in the highest degree in 
the object described. 

Herbert is strongest of the three. 
Other examples of the comparison of adjectives are : — 

Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree 

rich richer richest 

poor poorer poorest 

fast faster fastest 

firm firmer firmest 

183. Rules of Spelling. 

1. Adjectives ending in silent e drop this letter before the 
comparative ending er and the superlative ending est. Thus, — 

wise, wiser, wisest; pure, purer, purest; handsome, handsomer, 
handsomest. 

2. Most adjectives ending in y change y to i before the end- 
ings er and est. Thus, — 

silky, silkier, Silkiest ; glossy, glossier, glossiest ; sorry, sorrier, sorriest. 

3. Adjectives having a short vowel and ending in a single 
consonant double this before the endings er and est. Thus, — 

dim, dimmer, dimmest ; sad, sadder, saddest ; fit, fitter, fittest ; big, 
bigger, biggest ; red, redder, reddest ; hot, hotter, hottest. 



IEEEGULAE COMPARISON 81 

184. Many adjectives are compared by prefixing the adverbs more and 
most to the positive degree. 

Many adjectives of two syllables and most adjectives of 
three or more syllables are so compared. Thus, — 

recent, more recent, most recent ; terrible, more terrible, most terrible ; 
triumphant, more triumphant, most triumphant ; economical, more eco- 
nomical, most economical. 

Some adjectives may be compared in either way. 

Examples : intense, intenser, intensest ; or intense, more intense, 
most intense. So also — profound, sublime, unkind. 

Note. The adverbs less and least may be used with an adjective, if one 
wishes to run down the scale of comparison : as, — terrible, less terrible, least 
terrible. This idiom, however, should not be regarded as comparison of the 
adjective. " Superlative " means M in the highest degree," and is not applica- 
ble to least terrible, which means " terrible in the lowest degree." 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON 

185. Several adjectives have irregular comparison. 1 



Positive 


Comparative 


SlJPERLATIV] 


bad (evil, ill) 


worse 


worst 


far 


farther 


farthest 





further 


furthest 


good 


better 


best 


late 


later, latter 


latest, last 


well (in health) 


better 





little 


less, lesser 


least 


much, many 


more 


most 



Old has comparative older or elder, superlative oldest or eldest. 
Elder or eldest may be used with certain nouns of relation- 
ship, or in the phrases the elder and the eldest. 

This is my elder brother. My brother is older than yours. 

Jane was the eldest of six children. I shall wear my oldest clothes. 

Elder is also used as a noun : as, — " You should respect your elders." 

1 In some of these cases the comparative and superlative are really differ- 
ent words from the positive. 



82 



ADJECTIVES 



Next is a superlative of nigh. It is used only in the sense of 
" the very nearest." 

I live in the next street. 

The next time he comes, I shall refuse to see him. 

186. A few superlatives end in -most. With these, one or 
both of the other degrees are commonly wanting. 



Positive 


Comparative 


Superlative 





(former) 


foremost 


hind 


hinder 


hindmost 





inner 


inmost, innermost 




f outer 
\ (utter) 


outmost, outermost 


(out, adverb) 


utmost, uttermost 


(up, adverb) 


upper 


uppermost 








endmost 





nether 


nethermost 


top 





topmost 








furthermost 


north 





northmost 


northern 


(more northern) 


northernmost 


south 





southmost 


southern 


(more southern) 


southernmost 


east, eastern 


(more eastern) 


easternmost 


west, western 


(more western) 


westernmost 



Note. The ending -most is not the adverb most. It is a very old superla- 
tive ending -mest changed under the influence of the adverb most. 

187. For adjectives incapable of comparison, see § 202. For 
special rules for the use of comparative and superlative, see 
§§199-203. 

188. In parsing an adjective, tell whether it is descriptive or 
definitive, mention the substantive to which it belongs, and 
specify the degree of comparison. 



ADVEKBS 83 

CHAPTER V 
ADVERBS 

189- An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or 
another adverb. 

The storm ceased suddenly. 

A very disastrous storm swept the coast. 

The storm ceased very suddenly. 

190. Adverbs are classified according to their meaning as : 
(1) adverbs of manner; (2) adverbs of time; (3) adverbs of 
place; (4) adverbs of degree. 1 

1. Adverbs of manner answer the question "How?" "In 
what way ? n 

They modify verbs or adjectives, rarely adverbs. Most of 
them are formed from adjectives by adding ly. 

Tom answered courageously. 

The poor child looked helplessly about. 

Softly and silently fell the snow. 

The pain was terribly severe. 

The river rose surprisingly fast. 

2. Adverbs of time answer the question "When?" They 
usually modify verbs. Thus, — 

The old castle is now a museum. 
He was recently promoted. 
I have been disturbed lately. 
My friend arrives to-day. 
James was then a boy of seven. 
I have already rung the bell. 
Afterwards he regretted his haste. 

1 The four classes are not absolute, for the same adverb may be used in 
different senses and thus belong to different classes. Sometimes, too, there is 
room for difference of opinion. Thus in the fourth and fifth examples under l y 
terribly and surprisingly are equivalent to " in a terrible (or surprising) man- 
ner," and therefore are classified as adverbs of manner; but they may also be 
regarded as adverbs of degree. 



84 ADVERBS 

3. Adverbs of place answer the question " Where ? " They 
usually modify verbs. Thus, — 

Come here. 

Yonder stands the culprit. 

An old sailor came forward. 

My sister is out. 

I was abroad that winter. 

4. Adverbs of degree answer the question w To what degree 
or extent ? " They modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 
Thus,— 

Arthur is rather tall. 
Father was much pleased. 
Father was very much pleased. 
The task seemed utterly hopeless. 
That is hardly possible. 
That is not possible. 

191. Some adverbs have the same form as the correspond- 
ing adjectives. 

You have guessed right. 
How fast the tide ebbs ! 
The horse was sold cheap. 
Tired men sleep sound. 

Other examples are : — wrong, straight, early, late, quick, hard, far, 
near, slow, high, low, loud, ill, well, deep, close, just, very, much, little. 

Under this head come certain adverbs of degree used to 
modify adjectives. 

His eyes were dark blue. [Compare : very blue.] 
That silk is light yellow. [Compare : rather yellow.] 
These flowers are deep purple. [Compare : intensely purple.] 
The water was icy cold. [Compare : extremely cold.] 

That darJc y light, etc., are adverbs in this use appears from the fact that 
they answer the question "How ?" Thus, — "His eyes were blue." "How 
blue?" " Dark blue." 

Note. In the oldest English many adverbs ended in -c, as if formed 
directly from adjectives by means of this ending. Thus, the adjective for hot 
was hat, side by side with which was an adverb hate (dissyllabic) , meaning 
hotly. In the fourteenth century this distinction was stiU kept up. Thus, 



ADVERBS 85 

Chaucer used both the adjective hot and the dissyllabic adverb hote, meaning 
hotly. Between 1400 and 1500 all weak final e's disappeared from the language. 
In this way the adverb hote, for example, became simply hot. Thus these ad- 
verbs in -e became identical in form with the corresponding adjectives. Hence 
in the time of Shakspere there existed, in common use, not only the adjective 
hot, but also the adverb hot (identical in form with the adjective but really 
descended from the adverb hote). One could say not only "The fire is hot" 
(adjective), but " The fire burns hot" (adverb of manner). 

The tendency in modern English has been to confine the form without end- 
ing to the adjective use and to restrict the adverbial function to forms in -ly. 
Thus, a writer of the present time would not say, in prose, " The fire burns 
hot," but " The fire burns hotly." Nevertheless, a number of the old adverbs 
without ending still remain in good use, and must not be regarded as erroneous. 

In poetry, moreover, such adverbs are freely employed;, as, — "The boy 
like a gray goshawk stared wild." [In prose: stared ivildly.] 

For adverbial phrases, see § § 41-42, 475. 
For the adverbial objective, see § 109. 

192. Yes and no are peculiar adverbs used in assenting and 

denying. Thus, — 

Are you hungry ? 
No. 

Note. As now used, yes and no stand for complete sentences. Originally, 
however, they were modifiers, and hence they are still classed as adverbs. 
The original meaning of no was "never." Compare never as an emphatic 
negative in modern English: as, — "Will you surrender?" "Never!" The 
oldest affirmative adverb was yea. Yes was originally a compound of yea 
with a form of so, and was used in emphatic affirmatives (like out just so !). 

Other adverbs or adverbial phrases are sometimes used like yes or no. 
Such are certainly, assuredly, by no means, not at all. In these cases, how- 
ever, the modifying effect of the word or phrase may easily be seen when the 
sentence is supplied. Thus, — "Will you help me?" "Certainly [I will 
help you].'- 

193. There is often used merely to introduce a sentence in 
the inverted order (§5). 

There is a hole in my shoe. 

There are many strangers in town. 

There rose a thick smoke from the volcano. 

In this use, there is sometimes called an expletive (or "filler"). 
It is unemphatic, and has lost all its force as an adverb of place. 
Contrast w There [emphatic] stood an Indian under a tree " with, 
w There [unemphatic expletive] stood an Indian under a tree." 



86 ADVERBS 

RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS 

194. Relative adverbs introduce subordinate clauses and are similar 
in their use to relative pronouns. 

I know a farmhouse J m w 1C I we can spend the night. 

Where is an adverb of place, modifying can spend. But it also 
introduces the subordinate clause, as the relative pronoun which 
does. Hence where is called a relative adverb. 

195. The principal relative adverbs are: — where, whence, 
whither, wherever, when, whenever, while, as, how, why, before, 
after, till, until, since. 

Because of their similarity to conjunctions, these words are often called 
conjunctive adverbs. 

He had a fever when he was in Spain. 
Work while it is day. 

As the ship passed, we observed that her decks were crowded with 
Malays. [Time.] 

Keep to the right, as the law directs. [Manner.] 

You started before I was ready. 

Wait until the car stops. 

Since you came, it has rained constantly. 

As and since in the sense of " because," and while in the sense of " although," 
are classed as conjunctions (§ 368). 

The clauses introduced by relative adverbs may be either 
adjective or adverbial (§§ 49-50, 379-382). 

Note. In " The more you waste, the sooner you will want" (and similar 
sentences) the is not an article, but an old case-form of the pronoun that, used 
as an adverb of degree. We may expand the sentence as follows: " To what 
extent you waste more, to that extent you will want sooner." Thus it appears 
that the first the has a relative force, and the second the a demonstrative force. 

196. An interrogative adverb introduces a question. 

Where, when, whence, whither, how, why, may be used as 
interrogative adverbs. Thus, — 

Where are you going ? 
Why must you go ? 



COMPABISON OF ADVERBS 



87 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 

197, Adverbs have three degrees of comparison, — the positive, the 
comparative, and the superlative. 

1. Most adverbs are compared by means of more and most. 

John came promptly. [Positive.] 

Richard came more promptly than John. [Comparative.] 

Henry came most promptly of all. [Superlative.] 

2. A few adverbs are compared by means of the endings er and 
est Thus,— 



Positive 

near 
soon 



Comparative 

nearer 
sooner 



Superlative 

nearest 
soonest 



Further examples are: — cheap, dear, early, fast, hard, high, long, loud, 
quick, slow, deep. 1 

Some adverbs are compared in both ways. Thus, — 
often, oftener or more often, oftenest or most often. 

198. Several adverbs have irregular comparison. 

Positive 

far "1 
forth/ 
ill 1 
badly J 

nigh 

well 

late 

little 
much 

These adverbs in the main have the same forms as the adjectives studied 
in §185 above. Note, however: (1) that good and bad are never adverbs; 
(2) that ill and well, better and best, worse and worst, may be either adverbs 
or adjectives. Rather is now used in the comparative only. 

1 Many comparatives and superlatives in er and est that are no longer 
allowable in prose are still used in poetry. 



Comparative 


Superlative 


J farther 
|^ further 


f farthest 


(^ furthest 


worse 


worst 


nigher 


J nighest 
\next 


better 


best 


later 


J latest 
\last 


less 


least 


more 


most 



88 USE OF COMPARISON 

USE OF THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE 

199. The comparative degree, not the superlative, is used in compar- 
ing two persons or things. 

The superlative is used in comparing one person or thing with two 
or more. 

f Mary is the more agreeable of the two. 
HT * ^ Mary is the most agreeable of all the family. 

rl like both Mary and Jane, but I am fondest of Mary. 
Wrong :<|lam studying Latin, history, and geometry, but I dislike 
L the latter. 

The same principle applies to adverbs. 

John runs faster than Tom. [Here the acts of two persons are com- 
pared.] 

Which of you three can run fastest f [Here the acts of more than two 
are compared.] 

Note. In older English the superlative sometimes occurs when only two 
objects are thought of. This use is still found in a few proverbial phrases : 
as, — "Put your best foot foremost." 

200. The superlative is sometimes used merely for emphasis, 
without implying any definite comparison : as, — " My dearest 
Kate ! " 

The superlative of emphasis is very common with most 

Most potent, grave, and reverend signiors. — Shakspere. 
Justice had been most cruelly defrauded. — Wordsworth. 

Excessive use of this construction (like frequent repetition of very) is tire- 
some and weakens style. 

Double comparison (as more worthier, most unkindest) is common in older 
English, but is now a gross error. 

201. When two adjectives or adverbs are contrasted by 
means of than, more is used with the first. 

Such indulgence is more kind than wise. 
This scheme is more clever than honest. 
He acts more boldly than discreetly. 

Note. The adverb rather is often used with the first adjective or adverb 
(as, — " rather kind than wise " or " kind rather than wise), but in a slightly 
different sense. 



NUMERALS 89 

202. Many adjectives and adverbs are, from their meaning, 
incapable of comparison. Such are : — 

1. Adjectives expressing a quality as absolute or complete, 
and adverbs derived from such adjectives. 

Examples : unique, universal, single, matchless, instantaneous, trian- 
gular, everlasting, infinite, mortal ; uniquely, singly, eternally, mortally. 

2. The adverbs here, there, then, now, when, and the like. 

Note. Words like perfect, exact, straight, etc., are commonly said to be 
incapable of comparison, but this is an error. For each of these words may 
vary in sense. When perfect (for example) denotes absolute perfection, it 
cannot be compared. But perfect has also another sense : namely, " partaking 
in a higher or lower degree of the qualities that make up absolute perfection," 
so that we may describe one statue as more perfect than another, or one of 
three statues as the most perfect of them all. In this use, which is unobjec- 
tionable, we simply admit that nothing in the world is absolutely flawless, 
and assert that the three statues approach ideal perfection in various degrees. 

203. An adjective phrase may sometimes be compared by 
means of more and most. 

I was never more out of humor [= more vexed]. 

I think your last suggestion most in keeping [= most appropriate]. 



NUMERALS — ADJECTIVES, NOUNS, AND ADVERBS 

204. Words indicating number are called numerals. They are adjec- 
tives, nouns, or adverbs. 

There are seven days in the week. [Adjective.] 
Twelve make a dozen. [Noun.] 
I have called twice. [Adverb.] 

205. The chief classes of numerals are cardinals and ordinals. 

1, Cardinal numeral adjectives {one, two, three, four, etc.) are used in 
counting, and answer the question " How many ? " 

I had to pay three dollars. 

There were forty-two vessels in the fleet. 

Note. In such expressions as "The boy was sixteen," the numeral is a 
predicate adjective limiting boy (§ 172, 3). We need not expand sixteen to 
"sixteen years old." 



90 NUMEEALS 

2. Ordinal numeral adjectives {first, second, third, etc.) denote the 
position or order of a person or thing in a series. 

Carl plays the second violin. 

Your friend is sitting in the fifth row. 

206. All the cardinal and ordinal numerals may become 
nouns and may take a plural ending in some of their senses. 

One is enough. 

Four are missing. 

The nine played an excellent game. 

Three twos are six. 

The men formed by fours. 

Thousands perished by the way. 

Eight is two thirds of twelve. [So regularly in fractional parts.] 

Note. Hundred, thousand, million were originally nouns, but are now 
equally common as adjectives. Other numeral nouns are: — twain, couple, 
pair, brace, trio, quartette, quintette, foursome, dozen, score, century. 

207. Certain numeral adjectives (single, double, triple, etc.) 
indicate how many times a thing is taken or of how many like 
parts it consists. 

A double row of policemen stood on guard. 

A fourfold layer of chilled steel forms the door. 

Some of these words may be used as adverbs. 

The cabman charged double. 
His fear increased tenfold. 

208. Certain numeral adverbs and adverbial phrases indicate 
how many times an action takes place. 

Once my assailant slipped. 

I rang the bell twice. 

The river hath thrice flow'd, no ebb between. — Shakspere. 

•The only adverbs of this kind in ordinary use are once and twice. For 
larger numbers an adverbial phrase (three times, four times, etc.) is employed. 
Thrice, however, is still common in poetry and the solemn style. 



CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 91 

CHAPTER VI 
VERBS 

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 

209. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an 
action) concerning a person, place, or thing (§ 14). 

Most verbs express action. Some, however, merely express 
state or condition. Thus, — 

1. We jumped for joy. 

Rabbits burrow into the sides of hills. 

2. While memory lasts, I can never forget you. 
This mountain belongs to the Appalachian range. 

A verb-phrase is a group of words that is used as a verb (§ 15). 

The leaves are turning. 
The money has been found. 

210. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are 
called auxiliary (that is, "aiding") verbs, because they help 
other verbs to express action or state of some particular 
kind (§ 16). 

The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can, 
must, might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did. 

I am writing. He has forgotten me. 

We must go. We had failed. 

You will fall. I do see him. 

The auxiliary verb may be separated from the rest of the 
verb-phrase by other words. 

I have always liked him. 
I shall soon send for you. 
Robert was completely bewildered. 
He has hardly ever spoken to me. 



92 VEEBS 

211. Verbs are either transitive or intransitive (§ 99). 

Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which 
receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive 
verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive. 

A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is 
called its direct object. 

In the following sentences, the first four verbs are transitive 
(with objects), the last five are intransitive (without objects) : — 

Lightning shattered the oak. 

Clouds darkened the sky. 

Chemists extract radium from pitchblende. 

The orator quoted Tennyson incorrectly. 

Look where he stands and glares! 

The bankrupt absconded. 

The orange sky of evening died away. 

The words differ in a single letter. 

212. A verb which is transitive in one of its senses may be intransi- 
tive in another. 

Transitive Intransitive 

(with Object) (without Object) 

Boys fly kites. Birds fly. 

The pirates sank the ship. The stone sank. 

I closed my eyes. School closed yesterday. 

Tom tore his coat. The cloth tore easily. 

213. Many transitive verbs may be used absolutely, — that is, merely 
to express action without any indication of the direct object. 

Transitive Verb Transitive Verb 

with Object expressed used absolutely 

The horses drank water. The horses drank from the brook. 

The farmer plows his fields. The farmer plows in the spring. 

Charles is drawing a picture. Charles is drawing. 

There is a sharp contrast between a transitive verb used 
absolutely and a real intransitive verb. To the former we can 
always add an object ; with the latter no object is possible. 



CLASSIFICATION OF VEEBS 93 

214. Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may 
be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in 
the predicate describe or define the subject (§ 17). 

Such verbs are called copulative (that is, "joining") verbs. 

Is in this use is often called the copula (or " link "). 

Time is money. 
Grant was a tireless worker. 
Macbeth became a tyrant. 
His swans always prove geese. 
The current is sluggish. 
Lions are carnivorous. 
This village looks prosperous. 
The consul's brow grew stern. 
The queen turned pale. 

In the first four examples, the copulative verb (the simple 
predicate *) is followed by a predicate nominative (§ 88, 2) ; 
in the last five by a predicate adjective (§ 172, 3). 

The copulative verbs are intransitive, since they take no object. Some- 
times, however, they are regarded as a third class distinct both from transitive 
and intransitive verbs. 

215. The verb is is not alwavs a copula. It is sometimes 
emphatic and has the sense of exist. 

I think. Therefore I am. [That is, I exist.] 
Whatever is, is right. [The second is is the copula.] 

Most of the other copulative verbs may be used in some 
sense in which they cease to be copulative. 

The lawyer proved his case. 

Walnut trees grow slowly. 

Mr. Watson grows peaches. 

The wheel turned slowly on the axle. 

He turned his head and looked at me. 

1 Many grammarians regard is and the noun or adjective that follows it 
(is money, etc.) as the simple predicate ; but the nomenclature here adopted 
is equally scientific and more convenient* 



94 VEEBS 

INFLECTION OF VERBS 

216. Verbs have inflections of tense, person and number, and 
mood. They also have the distinction of voice, which is ex- 
pressed by the help of verb-phrases. 

Tense indicates time ; person and number correspond with per- 
son and number in substantives ; mood shows the manner in 
which the action is expressed; voice indicates whether the 
subject acts or is acted upon. 

TENSE OF VERBS 

217. The tense of a verb indicates its time. 1 

Verbs have forms of tense to indicate present, past, or future time. 

1 . A verb in the present tense refers to present time. 

2. A verb in the past tense refers to past time. 2 

3. A verb in the future tense refers to future time. 

The present, the past, and the future are called simple tenses. 

Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense 

He lives here. He lived here. He will live here. 

The sun shines. The sun shone. The sun will shine 

I know him. I knew him. I shall know him. 

FORMS OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 

218. The present and the past tense have special forms of 
inflection. 

For the moment we will consider the form which the verb 
has when its subject is the first personal pronoun L 

In the present tense the verb has its simplest form, without any 
inflectional ending. 

I like it. I dwell in the wilderness. 

I hope for the best. I find him amusing. 

1 The word tense is simply an English form of the French word for time. 

2 The past tense is often called the preterite (from a Latin word meaning 
" gone by ") . Preterite is in some ways a better name for the tense than past^ 
since both the perfect and the pluperfect tenses also refer to past time.. 



FORMS OF THE PRESENT AKD THE PAST 95 

219. The past tense is formed in two ways, and a verb is 
classed as weak or strong in accordance with the way in which 
it forms this tense. 

1. Weak verbs form the past tense by adding ed, d, or f to the present. 

Examples : mend, mended ; select, selected ; fill, filled ; glow, glowed ; 
talk, talked ; revere, revered ; dwell, dwelt. 

2. Strong verbs form the past tense by changing the vowel of the 
present, without the addition of an ending. 

Examples : drink, drank ; begin, began ; come, came ; rise, rose ; bind, 
bound ; cling, clung ; stick, stuck ; wear, wore. 1 

Weak verbs are sometimes called regular, and strong verbs 
irregular verbs. 

For a list of the strong verbs see pp. 291-297. 

Note. The terms strong and weak were first applied to verbs for a some- 
what fanciful reason. The strong verbs were so called because they seemed to 
form the past tense out of their own resources, without calling to their assist- 
ance any ending. The weak verbs were so called because they could not form 
the past tense without the aid of the ending ed, d, or t. 

220. The ending that is written ed is fully pronounced only 
when d or t precedes (as, — thread, threaded ; attract, attracted). 
Otherwise, e is silent, so that the ending becomes, in pronun- 
ciation, d or t (as, — entered, pronounced entered; rocked, 
pronounced rockt). 

In poetry and the solemn style, however, the silent e in the 
ending ed is sometimes restored to its ancient rights. 

221. Many weak verbs show special irregularities in the 
past tense. 

1. Make has made in the past, and have has had. 

2. Some verbs in -nd and -Id form their past tense by chang- 
ing this d to t. 

Examples : bend, bent ; send, sent ; lend, lent ; rend, rent ; spend, 
spent ; build, built. 

1 Silent final e is not counted as an ending. 



96 VEKBS 

3. A few verbs add d or t in the past and also change the 
vowel of the present. Thus, — 



sell 


sold 


buy 


bought 


tell 


told 


catch 


caught 


shoe 


shod 


seek 


sought 


say- 


said (pronounced sed) 


beseech 


besought 


hear 


heard (pronounced herd) 


teach 


taught 


bring 


brought 


methinks 


methought 



Work has an old past tense wrought, common in poetry ; its usual past is 
worked. For must, would, etc., see p. 299. 

4. Some verbs that have a long vowel sound in the present 
have in the past a short vowel sound before the ending t. 

Examples : creep, crept ; keep, kept ; sleep, slept ; sweep, swept ; weep, 
wept ; feel, felt ; deal, dealt (pronounced delt) ; mean, meant (pronounced 
ment) ; lose, lost ; leave, left. 1 

5. Some verbs in d or t preceded by a long vowel sound have 
a short vowel in the past but add no ending. 

Examples : bleed, bled ; breed, bred ; feed, fed ; speed, sped ; lead, 
led ; read (pronounced reed), read (pronounced red) ; meet, met ; light, 
lit (also lighted). 

6. Some verbs in d or t have in the past the same form as 
in the present. 

Examples : shed, past shed ; spread, past spread ; bet, past bet ; hit, 
past hit ; set, past set ; put, past put ; shut, past shut ; cut, past cut ) 
hurt, past hurt ; cast, past cast. 

Note. The verbs in 5 and 6 might appear to he strong verbs, since they 
have no ending in the past and some of them change the vowel. They are, 
however, all weak verbs. Their lack of ending is due to the fact that the 
d or t of the termination has been absorbed in the final d or t of the verb 
itself. Thus, the past set was originally sette (dissyllabic), and this form, after 
the loss of -c, became indistinguishable in sound from set, the present. 

For lists of irregular weak verbs, see pp. 291-299. 
1 Notice also the change from v to / before t. 



pebson a:nt> NUMBER 97 

PERSON AND NUMBER— THE PERSONAL ENDINGS 

222. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 
Verbs, like substantives, have two numbers (singular and plural) and 

three persons (first, second, and third). 

The singular number denotes a single person or thing. The plural 
number denotes more than one person or thing. 

The first person denotes the speaker ; the second person denotes the 
person spoken to ; the third person denotes the person or thing spoken of. 

223. The inflections of person and number in verbs may be 
seen by framing sentences with the personal pronouns as sub- 
jects. Thus, — 

Present Tense 
singular plural 

1. I walk. 1. We walk. 

2. Thou wsXk-est. 2. You walk. 

3. He walk-s [old form, walk-e^]. 3. They walk. 

Past Tense 
singular plural 

1. I walked. 1. We walked. 

2. Thou walked-s£. 2. You walked. 

3. He walked. 3. They walked. 

From the sentences it is evident (l).that the person and num-^ 
ber of a verb are usually shown by its subject only, but (2) 
that some verb-forms have special endings which denote person 
and number. 

224. The endings by means of which a verb indicates person and 
number are called personal endings. 

1. In the present tense a verb has two personal endings, est 
for the second person singular and s for the third person sin- 
gular (old form eth). 

The first person singular and all three persons of the plural 
are alike. The simplest form of the verb is used and no per- 
sonal ending is added. 



98 



VEEBS 



2. The past tense has but one personal ending, — est or st in 
the second person singular. 1 

•^ The forms in est or st are confined to poetry and the solemn 
style. In ordinary language, the second person plural is used 
to address a single person. 

The following table shows the personal endings of the present 
and the past tense : — 

Personal Endings 
Present Tense Past Tense 



singular 

1. [no ending'] 

2. -est, -st 

3. -s {old, -eth] 



PLURAL 



2. L 



no ending] 



SINGULAR 

1. [no ending] 

2. -est, -st 

3. [no ending] 



1.1 

2. y [no ending] 

3.J 



Conjugation of the Present and the Past 

225. The inflection of a verb is called its conjugation (§ 53). 
When we inflect a verb we are said to conjugate it. 



Conjugation of the Weak Verb Walk 



Present Tense 



singular 

1. I walk. 

2. Thou walkest. 2 

3. He walks. 

SINGULAR 

1. I walked. 

2. Thou walkedst. 

3. He walked. 



Past Tense 



1. We walk. 

2. You walk. 

3. They walk. 



1. We walked. 

2. You walked. 

3. They walked. 



1 The ending ed indicates tense, not person or number. 

2 The second person singular is often given as " Thou walkest or You walk," 
but it is simpler to regard You walk in this use as a plural in a singular sense 
(§224). 



PEBSON AND NUMBER 



Conjugation of the Strong Verb Find 



SINGULAR 


Present Tense 




PLURAL 


1. I find. 

2. Thou findest. 

3. He finds. 




1. 
2. 
3. 


We find. 
You find. 
They find. 


SINGULAR 


Past Tense 




PLURAL 


1. I found. 

2. Thou foundest. 

3. He found. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


We found. 
You found. 
They found. 


Conjugation of the 


Copula 


SINGULAR 


Present Tense 




PLURAL 


1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He is. 




1. 
2. 
3. 


We are. 
You are. 
They are. 


SINGULAR 


Past Tense 




PLURAL 


1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 




1. 
2. 
3. 


We were. 
You were. 
They were. 


The English verb formerly had more 


personal endings. In Chaucer, 



for instance, the typical inflection of the present is : — 



Singular 

1. I walke. 

2. Thou walkest. 

3. He walketh. 



Plural 

1. We walken (or walke). 

2. Ye walken (or walke) . 

3. They walken (or walke). 



The disappearance of all weak finale's in the fifteenth century (§ 191) reduced 
the first person singular and the whole plural to the single form walk. Later, 
walks (a dialect form) was substituted for ivalketh, and still later the second 
person singular was replaced in ordinary use by the plural. The result has 
been that in modern speech there are only two common forms in the present 
tense, — walk and walks. In poetry and the solemn style, however, walkest and 
walketh are still in use. The plural in en is frequently adopted by Spenser as 
an ancient form (or archaism) : as, — "You deemen the spring is come." 



100 VEKBS 

Special Rules of Number and Person 

226. When the subject is compound (§ 38), the number of 
the verb is determined by the following rules : — 

1. A compound subject with and usually takes a verb in the 
plural number. 

My brother and sister play tennis. 

The governor and the mayor are cousins. 

2. A compound subject with or or nor takes a verb in the 
singular number if the substantives are singular. 

Either my brother or my sister is sure to win. 

Neither the governor nor the mayor favors this appointment. 

3. A compound subject with and expressing but a single 
idea sometimes takes a verb in the singular number. 

The sum and substance [ = gist] of the matter is this. 

Note. This construction is rare in modern English prose. It is for the 
most part confined to such idiomatic phrases as end and aim (= purpose), the 
long and short of it, etc. The poets, however, use the construction freely (as 
in Kipling's "The tumult and the shouting dies"). 

4. If the substantives connected by or or nor differ in num- 
ber or person, the verb usually agrees with the nearer. 

Either you or he is to blame. 

Neither you nor he is an Austrian. 

Neither John nor we were at home. 

Neither the mayor nor the aldermen favor this law. 

But colloquial usage varies, and such expressions are avoided 
by careful writers. The following sentences show how this may 
be done : — 

Either you are to blame, or he is. 

One of you two is to blame. 

Neither of you is an Austrian. 

He is not afraid ; neither am I. 

Both John and we were away from home. 



PEKSOJST AND NUMBER 101 

227. In such expressions as the following, the subject is not 
compound, and the verb agrees with its singular subject : — 

The governor with his staff is present. 

John, as well as Mary, is in London. 

Tom, along with his friends Dick and Bob, is taking a sail. 

228. Nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense 
commonly take a verb in the singular number (§ 84). 

Economics is an important study. 

The gallows has been abolished in Massachusetts. 

In some words usage varies. Thus, pains, in the sense of care or effort, is 
sometimes regarded as a singular and sometimes as a plural. 

Great pains has (or have) been taken about the matter. 

229. Collective nouns take sometimes a singular and sometimes 
a plural verb. 

When the persons or things denoted are thought of as 
individuals, the plural should be used. When the collection is 
regarded as a unit, the singular should be used. 1 

1. The Senior Class requests the pleasure of your company. [Here the 
class is thought of collectively, acting as a unit.] 

2. The Senior Class are unable to agree upon a president. [Here the 
speaker has in mind the individuals of whom the class is composed.] 

3. The nation welcomes Prince Joseph. [The whole nation unites as a 
single individual to welcome a distinguished guest.] 

4. The American nation are descended from every other nation on 
earth. [The separate qualities of the individuals who constitute the 
nation are in the speaker's mind.] 

230. A number in the sense of " several " or " many " regu- 
larly takes the plural ; the number takes the singular 

A number of sailors were loitering on the pier. 
The number of tickets is limited. 

1 This rule is not absolute. Sometimes the distinction is unimportant, and 
the feeling of the moment often determines the number of the verb. 



102 VERBS 

231. Half j part, portion, and the like, take either the sin- 
gular or the plural according to sense. 

Half of a circle is a semicircle. 
Half of the passengers were lost. 

232. A verb which has for its subject a relative pronoun is in 
the same person and number as the antecedent. For examples, 
see § 149. 

Errors are especially common in such sentences as, — 

This is one of the strangest sights that ever were seen. [The antece- 
dent of that is sights (not one) ; hence the relative (that) is plural, and 
accordingly the verb is plural (were, not was),] 

Mr. Winn's oration was among the most eloquent that have [not has] 
been delivered in this state for many years. 

This is one of the finest paintings there are in the hall. [For the omission 
of the relative, see § 151.] 

THE FUTURE TENSE 

233. The future tense is a verb-phrase consisting of the aux- 
iliary verb shall or will followed by the infinitive without to 
(§ 29). 

The following table shows the form of the future for each of 
the three persons (1) in assertions and (2) in questions : — 

Future Tense 

Assertions (Declarative) 

singular plural 



1. 

2. 
3. 


I shall fall. 
Thou wilt fall. 
He will fall. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


We shall fall. 
You will fall. 
They will fall. 




Questions (Interrogative) 




singular 




PLURAL 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Shall I fall ? 
Shalt thou fall ? 
Will he fall ? 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Shall we fall ? 
Shall you fall ? 
Will they fall ? 



FUTUEE TENSE 103 

234. Common errors are the use of will for shall (1) in the 
first person in assertions and questions, and (2) in the second person 
in questions. 

In the following sentences the first person of the future 
tense is correctly formed: — 

I shall [not will] drown. Shall [not will] I drown ? 

I shall [not will ] fail. Shall [not will] I fail ? 

We shall [not will] sink. Shall [not will] we sink f 

The verb-phrases with shall express merely the action of the 
verb in future time. They do not indicate any willingness or 
desire on the part of the subject. 

Contrast the following sentences, in which / will or we will 

is used : — 

I will go with you. 

I will give you what you ask. 

I will not endure it. 

We will allow you to enter. 

We will have the truth. 

Here the verb-phrases with will do not (as in the previous 
examples of 2" shall) express the action of the verb in future 
time. They express the present willingness or desire or determi- 
nation of the speaker to do something in the future. 

Hence such verb-phrases with will in the first person are 
not forms of the future tense. They are special verb-phrases 
expressing willingness or desire. 

235. In the first person shall, not will, is the auxiliary of the future 
tense in both assertions and questions. It denotes simple futurity, with- 
out expressing willingness, desire, or determination. 

Will in the first person is used in promising, threatening, consenting, 
and expressing resolution. It never denotes simple futurity. 

I. Simple Futurity (Future Tense) 

I shall be eighteen years old in July. [Not : will be.] 
Hurry, or we shall miss our train. [Not : will miss.] 
We shall be glad to see him. [Not : will be.] 



104 VERBS 

II. Promises, Threats, etc. 

I will subscribe to your fund. [Promise.] 

We will do our best. [Promise.] 

I will discharge you if you are late again. [Threat.] 

We will permit you to go. [Consent.] 

I will have obedience. [Resolution.] 

IHl and we HI are contractions of I will and we will and can 
never stand for I shall and we shall. 

I HI meet you at noon. [Promise.] 
IHl never consent. [Resolution.] 
We HI be revenged on you. [Threat.] 

236. When willingness is expressed by an adjective, I shall 
is correct ; when by an adverb, I will. Thus, — 

I shall be glad to help you. 
I will gladly help you. 

Note. Such expressions as I shall be glad, I shall be willing, I shall be 
charmed to do this, express willingness not by means of shall but in the adjec- 
tives glad, willing, charmed. To say, " I will be glad to do this," then, would 
be wrong, for it would be to express volition twice. Such a sentence could 
only mean " i" am determined to be glad to do this.". 

On the other hand, in " I will gladly help you," volition is expressed by the 
verb-phrase will help and the adverb merely modifies the phrase by emphasiz- 
ing the speaker's willingness. Hence I will is correct. 

237. Willy when emphasized, always expresses determination 
on the part of the subject, even in the second and third persons. 

I will go, no matter what you say. 

You will"! „\_, _ , 

p- ^act foolishly, in spite of my advice. 

238. In the second person Shall you ? not Will you ? is the proper 
form of the future tense in questions. 

Will you ? always denotes willingness, consent, or determination, and 
never simple futurity. 

Note that in questions in the second person, the auxiliary 
used is the same as that expected in the answer. 



TENSE OF VERBS 105 

I. Future Tense (Simple Futurity) 

Shall you be disappointed if he does not come ? [I shall.] 

Shall you regret his absence ? [I shall.] 

Shall you go by boat or by train ? [I shall go by boat.] 



II. Verb-Phrase denoting Willingness, etc. 

Will you write often ? [I will.] 

Will you allow me to help you ? [I will.] 

Will you be so kind as to open the window ? [I will.] 

239. Shall in the second and third persons is not trie sign of 
the future tense in declarative sentences. 

It is used in commanding, promising, threatening, and express- 
ing resolution, the volition being that of the speaker. 

Thou shalt not kill. [Command.] 

You shall have the hat before Monday. [Promise.] 

You shall pay for this insult ! [Threat.] 

She shall not regret her generosity. [Resolution.] 

In prophetic language, shall is common in the second and 
third persons, even when there is no idea of commanding or 
the like. 

The sun shall be turned into darkness and the moon into blood. — 
Joel ii. 31. 

240. In military orders and official communications, custom 
permits the more courteous will in the place of shall in the 
second and third persons. 

You will immediately report for orders. 

Heads of Departments will submit their estimates before January first. 

For shall and will in subordinate clauses, see pp. 130-132. 

241. Future time may also be expressed by the present 
tense, or by about or going with the infinitive (§ 319). 

We sail for Havana on Tuesday. 

They are about to begin the study of Greek. 



106 VEEBS 

COMPLETE OR COMPOUND TENSES 

242. Completed action is denoted by special verb-phrases made 
by prefixing to the past participle some form of the auxiliary 
verb have. 

These are called the complete or compound tenses. 

There are three complete or compound tenses, — the perfect 
(or present perfect), the pluperfect (or past perfect), and the future 
perfect. , 

1. The perfect (or present perfect) tense denotes that the action of 
the verb is complete at the time of speaking. It is formed by prefixing 
have (hast, has) to the past participle. 

I have learned my lesson. 
He has convinced me. 

Note. With several verbs of motion the auxiliary be is sometimes used 
instead of have : as, — " My friends are gone " (or " have gone ") ,* " Your time 
is come " (or " has come ")• 

2. The pluperfect (or past perfect) tense denotes that the action was 
completed at some point in past time. It is formed by prefixing had 
(hadsf) to the past participle. 

Before night fell, I had finished the book. 
When Blake had spoken, Allen rose to reply. 

3. The future perfect tense denotes that the action will be completed 
at some point in future time. It is formed by prefixing the future tense 
of have (shall have, etc.) to the past participle. 

Before I hear from you again, I shall have landed at Naples. 

The future perfect tense is rare except in very formal writing. 

243. The forms of the past participle will be studied in 
§ 334. Meanwhile, the following practical rule will serve every 
purpose : — 

The past participle is that verb-form which is used after / have. 

Examples : [I have] mended, tried, swept, bought, broken, forgotten, 
found, sunk, dug. 



ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE 107 

244. A verb-phrase made by prefixing having to the past 
participle is called the perfect participle. 

Having reached my destination, I stopped. 

A verb-phrase made by prefixing to have to the past parti- 
ciple is called the perfect infinitive. 

I am sorry to have missed you. 

245. Three forms of the verb are so important that they 
are called the principal parts. These are : — 

(1) the first person singular of the present ; 

(2) the first person singular of the past ; 

(3) the past participle. 

Present 

(I) walk 
(I) think 
(I) see 
(I) come 
(I) make 



VOICE — ACTIVE AND PASSIVE 

246. Voice is that property of verbs which indicates whether the 
subject acts or is acted upon. 

There are two voices, active and passive. 

1. A verb is in the active voice when it represents the subject as the 
doer of an act. 

Richard shot the bear. 
Mr. Hardy builds carriages. 
Dr. Wilson has cured my father. 

2. A verb is in the passive voice when it represents the subject as 
the receiver or the product of an action. 

The bear was shot by Richard. 

Carriages are built by Mr. Hardy. 

My father has been cured by Dr. Wilson. 



Past 


Past Participle 


(I) walked 


walked 


(I) thought 


thought 


(I) saw 


seen 


(I) came 


come 


(I) made 


made 



108 



VEKBS 



247. The passive voice of a verb is expressed by a verb-phrase made 
by prefixing some form of the copula (is, was, etc.) to the past participle. 

In the passive voice of the complete tenses, the past participle 
been follows the proper form of the auxiliary have (as in the 
third example in § 246, 2). 

The passive of the infinitive is made by prefixing to be (per- 
fect, to have been) to the past participle. Thus, — 

Present infinitive passive : to be struck. 
Perfect infinitive passive : to have been struck. 

248. The following table gives the conjugation of the verb 
strike in the active and passive of the six tenses : — 



Active Voice 



1. I strike. 

2. Thou strikest. 

3. He strikes. 



Passive Voice 
Present Tense 
singular 

1. I am struck. 

2. Thou art struck. 

3. He is struck. 



1. We strike. 

2. You strike. 

3. They strike. 



PLURAL 

1. We are struck. 

2. You are struck. 

3. They are struck. 



1. I struck. 

2. Thou struckest. 

3. He struck. 



Past Tense 
singular 

1. I was struck. 

2. Thou wast (or wert) struck. 

3. He was struck. 



1. We struck. 

2. You struck. 

3. They struck. 



PLURAL 

1. We were struck. 

2. You were struck. 

3. They were struck. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS 



109 



Active Voice Passive Voice 

Future Tense 



1. I shall strike. 

2. Thou wilt strike. 

3. He will strike. 



SINGULAR 

1. I shall be struck. 

2. Thou wilt be struck. 

3. He will be struck. 



1. We shall strike. 

2. You will strike. 

3. They will strike. 



PLURAL 

1. We shall be struck. 

2. You will be struck. 

3. They will be struck. 



Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 



singular 



1. 

2. 

3. 


I have struck. 
Thou hast struck. 
He has struck. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


I have been struck. 
Thou hast been struck. 
He has been struck. 






PLURAL 


1. 
2. 
3. 


We have struck. 
You have struck. 
They have struck. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


We have been struck. 
You have been struck. 
They have been struck. 



Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 



1. I had struck. 

2. Thou hadst struck. 

3. He had struck. 



SINGULAR 

1. I had been struck. 

2. Thou hadst been struck. 

3. He had been struck. 



1. We had struck. 

2. You had struck. 

3. They had struck. 



PLURAL 

1. We had been struck. 

2. You had been struck. 

3. They had been struck. 



110 



VEEBS 



Active Voice Passive Voice 

Future Perfect Tense 



1. I shall have struck. 

2. Thou wilt have struck. 

3. He will have struck. 



SINQULAR 

1. 

2. 
3. 



I shall have been struck. 
Thou wilt have been struck. 
He will have been struck. 



1. We shall have struck. 1. 

2. You will have struck. 2. 

3. They will have struck. 3. 



We shall have been struck. 
You will have been struck. 
They will have been struck. 



Use of the Passive Voice 

249. Any sentence of which the predicate is a transitive 
verb followed by an object, may be changed from the active 
to the passive form without affecting the sense. 

Active. Richard shot the bear. 
Passive. The bear was shot by Richard. 

In this change, (1) bear, the object of the active verb 
shot, becomes the subject of the passive verb was shot; and 
(2) Richard, the subject of the active verb shot, becomes by 
Richard, an adverbial phrase, modifying the passive verb was 
shot. Thus we have the rule : - — 

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive, and 
the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial phrase 
modifying the predicate verb. 



Active Voice 

My cat caught a bird. 
Austin thanked Charles. 
The bullet penetrated a tree. 
Sargent painted that portrait. 
The fireman had saved the child. 



Passive Voice 

A bird was caught by my cat. 
Charles was thanked by Austin. 
A tree was penetrated by the bullet. 
That portrait was painted by Sargent. 
The child had been saved by the fire- 
man. 



PASSIVE VOICE 111 

250. Intransitive verbs are ordinarily used in the active voice 
only. 

The bystanders laughed. The watchdogs bark. Snow is falling. 

251. An intransitive verb followed by a preposition is often 
used in the passive, the object of the preposition becoming the 
subject of the verb. 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

Everybody laughed at him. He was laughed at by everybody. 

The attorney general has not yet This bill has not yet been passed 

passed upon this bill. upon. 

He has tampered with this lock. This lock has been tampered with. 

The cart ran over me. I was run over by the cart. 

Other examples are: talk about (= discuss), look or inquire into 
(= investigate), look upon (= regard), jeer at (= deride), reason with, 
object to, insist upon, act upon. 

Note. In this idiom, the preposition is treated like an ending attached to 
the verb to make it transitive. In other words, laugh at, pass upon, etc., are 
treated as compound verbs, and the object of the preposition is, in effect, the 
object of the compound. In the passive, this object becomes the subject and 
the preposition (now lacking an object) remains attached to the verb. The 
passive construction is well established, but not always graceful. 

252. The passive of some verbs of choosing, calling, naming, 
making, and thinking may be followed by a predicate nominative 
(§ 88, 2). 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

(predicate objective) (predicate nominative) 

We elected John president. John was elected president. 

The Koman people called the chief The chief was called friend by the 

friend. Roman people. 

The herald proclaimed him era- He was proclaimed emperor by the 

per or. herald. 

Note. In the active voice, these verbs may take two objects referring to 
the same person or thing, — a direct object and a predicate objective (§ 104). In 
the passive, the direct object becomes the subject, and the predicate objective 
becomes a predicate nominative, agreeing with the subject (§ 88, 2). 



112 VERBS 

Object of the Passive 

253. When a verb takes both a direct and an indirect object, 
one of the two is often retained after the passive, the other 
becoming the subject. Thus, — 

1. The indirect object is retained. 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

My aunt gave me this watch. This watch was given me by my 

aunt. 
We allowed them free choice. Free choice was allowed them. 

He allowed each speaker an hour. An hour was allowed each speaker. 
Congress granted me a pension. A pension was granted me. 

Note. The preposition to is often inserted in the passive construction, 
especially with a noun ; as, — "A small pension was granted to Dr. Johnson." 

2. The direct object is retained. 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

We allowed them their choice. They were allowed their choice. 

He allowed each speaker an hour. Each speaker was allowed an hour. 
They showed me the way. I was shown the way. 

Experience has taught me wisdom. I have been taught wisdom by ex- 
perience. 

The direct object after a passive verb is often called the 
retained object. 

Note. This construction, though common, is avoided by many careful 
writers, except in a few well-established idioms. Its habitual use gives one's 
style a heavy and awkward air. Instead of "He was given permission," one 
may say " He received permission " ; instead of " I was given this watch by 
my aunt," either " It was my aunt who gave me this watch " or " This watch 
was a present from my aunt." 

254. The verb ask, which may take two direct objects, — 
one denoting the person, the other the thing, — sometimes 
retains its second object in the passive construction (§ 103). 

Active. We asked him his opinion. 
Passive. He was asked his opinion. 



PBOGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES 113 

PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES 

255. In addition to the tense-forms already described, verbs 
have so-called progressive forms. 

The progressive form of a tense represents the action of the verb as 
going on or continuing at the time referred to. 

I ate my dinner. 
I was eating my dinner. 

While I was quietly reading by my fireside, strange things were taking 
place in the square. 

Both ate and was eating are in the past tense. But ate merely 
expresses a past action, whereas was eating describes this action 
as continuing or in progress in past time. 

256. The progressive form is a verb-phrase made by prefixing to 
the present participle some form of the verb to be. 



Progressive Form 
Active Voice 
Present Tense 
singular plural 

1. I am striking. 1. We are striking. 

2. Thou art striking. 2. You are striking. 

3. He is striking. 3. They are striking. 

So in the other tenses : 

Past I was striking, etc. 

Future I shall be striking, etc. 

Perfect I have been striking, etc. 

Pluperfect I had been striking, etc. 

Future perfect I shall have been striking; etc. 

Passive Voice 

Present I am being struck, etc. 

Past I was being struck, etc. 



114 VERBS 

257. In the passive, the progressive forms are confined to 
the present and the past tense. 

He is being helped by his brother. [Present.] 
I am being trained by Arthur Ray. [Present.] 
When I called, tea was being served. [Past.] 

258. In subordinate clauses, the verb is (in its various forms) 
with its subject is often omitted in progressive phrases. 

While waiting for the train, I bought a newspaper. [That is, While I 
was waiting.] 

Though [he was] swimming vigorously, he could not stem the tide. 

When [I am] reading, I like to have the light shine over my left 
shoulder. 

In parsing, the omitted words should be supplied. 

259. For such progressive forms as is building for is being 
built, see § 352. 

EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES 

260. The present or the past of a verb in the active voice may be ex- 
pressed with emphasis by means of a verb-phrase consisting of do or did 
and the infinitive without to. 

Such a phrase is called the emphatic form of the present or past tense. 

ff I do see you " and ff I did go " differ from f f I see you " and f f I went " 
merely in emphasis. Hence do see is called the emphatic form of the present 
tense of see, and did go the emphatic form of the past tense of go. 

261. In questions and in negative statements the emphatic 
forms are used without the effect of emphasis. 

Did you go ? I did not go. 



Note. Do often stands for some other verb which has just been used : as, — 
" Jack swims better than I do," " You looked as tired as she did. 11 This idiom 
comes from the omission of the infinitive in the verb-phrase: — "Jack swims 
better than I do [swim]. 11 

In poetry and older English the verb-phrase with do or did in declarative 
sentences often carries no emphasis, but merely takes the place of the present 
or past : as, — " The serpent beguiled me, and I did eat. 1 ' 



INDICATIVE MOOD 115 

MOOD OF VEEBS 

262. Mood is that property of verbs which shows the manner in 
which the action or state is expressed. 

Mood (or mode) is derived from the Latin word modus y "manner." 

Compare the following sentences, noting the form of the 
verb in each : — 

Richard is quiet. 

Is Richard quiet ? 

If Richard were quiet, I might study. 

Richard, be quiet. 

In the first and second sentences, the form is is used to assert 
or question a fact ; in the third, the form were expresses a con- 
dition or supposition that is contrary to fact ; in the fourth, the 
form be expresses a command or request. 

The difference in form seen in the verb in these sentences is 
called a difference of mood. 

263. There are three moods, — the indicative, the imperative, and 
the subjunctive. 

1. The indicative is the mood of simple assertion or interrogation, but 
it is used in other constructions also. 

2. The imperative is the mood of command or reqliest. 

3. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of 
wish, condition, and the like. 

Thus, in the examples in § 262, is is in the indicative, were 
in the subjunctive, and be in the imperative mood. 

I. INDICATIVE MOOD 

264. The ordinary forms of the indicative mood in the active 
and the passive voice and in all six tenses, — present, past, 
future, perfect (or present perfect), pluperfect (or past perfect), 
and future perfect, — may be seen in the table on pp. 108-110. 

For the progressive form of the indicative, see § 256 ; for the 
emphatic form, see § 260. 



116 VEEBS 

265. The commonest uses of the indicative mood are in state- 
ments or questions as to matters of fact ; but it may express 
almost any other form of thought. Thus, — 

Time and tide wait for no man. [Assertion.] 

How goes the world with you ? [Interrogation.] 

How it rains I [Exclamation.] 

If the river rises, the dam will be swept away. [Supposition.] 

I suspect that he has absconded. [Doubt.] 

I hope that John will come soon. [Desire.] 

Though Ellen dislikes algebra, she never shirks. [Concession.] 

You will report for duty immediately. [Command.] 

Will you allow me to use your knife ? [Kequest.] 

Note. The indicative and the subjunctive were originally quite distinct 
in form, and each had its own set of constructions. T5ut, as our language has 
grown simpler in its structure, the forms of these two -moods have become 
almost identical, and the uses of the indicative have been greatly multiplied 
at the expense of the subjunctive. Indeed, there is scarcely any variety of 
thought expressed by the subjunctive or the imperative for which the indica- 
tive cannot also be employed. It is therefore impossible to frame any satisfac- 
tory definition of the indicative. Its functions are too varied to be included in 
one general statement. The indicative is often described as the mood which 
asserts thought as a fact, and the subjunctive as the mood which expresses 
thought as supposition (or as mere thought) . But the indicative, as well as the 
subjunctive, may express supposition, condition, doubt, desire, concession, etc. 
Hence the definitions in § 263 are as exact as the facts of the language allow. 
All the efforts of grammarians to devise more " accurate " definitions break 
down when tested by actual usage. 



H. IMPERATIVE MOOD 

266. The imperative is the mood of command or request. 

Hurry ! Light the lamp. 

Lie down. SJiow us the way. 

Shut the door. Wait a moment. 

Have patience. Gome to dinner. 

The imperative has both voices, active and passive, but only 
one tense, — the present. It has both numbers, the singular and 
the plural, but only one person, the second. It has the same 
form for both the singular and the plural. 



IMPEEATIVE MOOD 117 

267. 1. The imperative active is the verb in its simplest form. 

For examples, see § 266. 

The imperative of the verb to be is be. Thus, — 

Be brave. Be sure you are right. 

Be careful. Be here at noon. 

2. The imperative passive is a verb-phrase consisting of be and a 
past participle. 

Be trusted rather than feared. 

Study your failures and be instructed by them. 

268. The subject of an imperative is seldom expressed unless it is 
emphatic. 

The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative : 
as, — You sit here. 

Note. In older English, the subject often followed the imperative : as, — 
Go thou, Go you. Hear ye. This use is now confined to the solemn style and 
to poetry. 

269. The emphatic form of the imperative consists of the im- 
perative do, followed by the infinitive without to. 

Do tell me what he said. 
Bo stand still. 

The form with do is often used when the subject is expressed 
as, — Do you remain. 

270. Prohibition (or negative command) is commonly expressed 
by means of the form with do. 

Bo not open a closed door without knocking. 
Bo not forget to say ff thank you." 

In poetry and the solemn style prohibition is often expressed 
by the simple imperative with not. 

Tell me not what too well I know. 
Devise not evil against thy neighbor. 
Seek not to learn my name. 



118 



VEEBS 



271. Commands are sometimes expressed in the indicative 
by means of shall or will (§§ 239-240). 

Thou shalt not steal. 

You will leave the room immediately. 

For such expressions as "Forward!" "Off with you!" and the like, 
see § 530. 

For the imperative in conditions, see § 418. 

W. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
Forms of the Subjunctive 

272. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions 
of wish, condition, and the like. 

In older English the subjunctive forms were common in a 
variety of uses, as they still are in poetry and the solemn 
style. In ordinary prose, however, subjunctive forms are rare, 
and in conversation they are hardly ever heard, except in the 
case of the copula be. 

The subjunctive forms of be are the following : — 



Subjunctive Mood 



singular 
If I be. 
If thou be. 
If he be. 



Present Tense 



PLURAL 

1. If we be. 

2. If you be. 

3. If they be. 



Past Tense 



singular 

1. If I were. 

2. If thou wert. 

3. If he were. 



PLURAL 

1. If we were. 

2. If you were. 

3. If they were. 



Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 
singular plural 

1. If I have been. , 1. If we have been. 

2. If thou have been. 2. If you have been. 

3. If he have been. 3. If they have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 119 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 
singular plural 

1. If I had been. 1. If we had been. 

2. If thou hadst been. 2. If you had been. 

3. If he had been. 3. If they had been. 

If is used in the paradigm because it is in clauses beginning with if that 
the subjunctive is commonest in modern English; but if is of course no part 
of the subjunctive inflection. 

273. In other verbs, the subjunctive active has the same forms 
as the indicative, except in the second and third persons singular 
of the present and the perfect, which are like the first person : — ■ 

Present Perfect 

1. If I strike. 1. If I have struck. 

2. If thou strike. 2. If thou have struck. 

3. If he strike. 3. If he have struck. 

In the passive subjunctive, the subjunctive forms of the copula 
(§ 272) are used as auxiliaries : — present, If I be struck; past, 
If I were struck; perfect, If I have been struck; pluperfect, If 
I had been struck. (See table, p. 304.) 

274. Progressive verb-phrases in the subjunctive may be formed 
by means of the copula : — present, If I be striking; past, If I 
were striking. The present is rare ; the past is common. 

Uses of the Subjunctive 
Subjunctive in Wishes and Exhortations 

275. The subjunctive is often used in wishes or prayers. 

Angels and ministers of grace defend us ! 

Heaven help him ! 

The saints preserve us ! 

God bless you ! 

Long live the king ! 

O that I had listened to him ! 

that we were rid of him ! 



120 VERBS 

In the first five examples, the wish is expressed in an inde- 
pendent sentence. In the last two, the construction is sub- 
ordinate, — the thai-clause being the object of an unexpressed 
"I wish" (§407). 

276. The subjunctive be is often omitted when it may easily 

be supplied. 

Peace [be] to his ashes ! 
Honor [be] to his memory ! 
Honor [be] to whom honor is due ! 

277. Wishes are often introduced by may or would. 

May you never want ! 

Would that he were safe ! 

Would you were with us ! [For Would that.] 

May and would in such expressions were originally subjunctives ; would 
stands for I would, that is, I should wish. Want in the first example is an 
infinitive without to (§ 311) . For wishes expressed by the infinitive, see § 320. 

278. Exhortations in the first person plural sometimes take 
the subjunctive in elevated or poetical style. 

Hear we the king ! 

Join we in a hymn of praise ! 

Exhortation is ordinarily expressed by let us followed by 
the infinitive without to. 

Let us join hands. 
Let us have peace. 
Let 's camp here. 

Let is a verb in the imperative mood, us is its object, and the infinitive 
(Join, have, camp) depends on let. 



Subjunctives in Concessions, Conditions, etc. 

279. The subjunctive is used after though, although, to express an 
admission or concession not as a fact but as a supposition. 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

Though he were to beg this on his knees, I should still refuse. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 121 

When the concession is stated as an admitted fact, the indica- 
tire is regular. 

Although he is a foreigner, he speaks good English. 
Though he sometimes sings, he is not now in good voice. 

280. After if and unless, expressing condition, the subjunctive 
may be used in a variety of ways. 

1. If this be gold, our fortune is made. [It may or may not be gold,] 

2. If he confess, I shall overlook the offence. [He may or may not 
confess.] 

3. Unless he confess, he cannot be convicted. [He may or may not 
confess.] 

4. If this were gold, our fortune would be made. [It is not gold ; hence 
our fortune is not made.] 

5. If he stood before me at this moment, I should tell him my opin- 
ion. [He does not stand before me ; hence I do not tell him.] 

6. If he had confessed, I should have overlooked his fault. [He did 
not confess ; hence I did not overlook it.] 

7. Unless he had confessed, he could not have been convicted. [He 
did confess ; hence he was convicted.] 

In conditional clauses, the present subjunctive denotes either 
present or future time. It puts the supposed case doubtfully, but 
not necessarily as improbable. (See examples 1-3.) 

The past subjunctive refers to present time. It implies that 
the supposed case is not now a fact. (See examples 4 and 5.) 

The pluperfect (or past perfect) subjunctive refers to past time. 
It implies that the supposed case was not a fact. (See 6 and 7.) 

For details of conditional sentences, see pp. 167-172. 

281 . Concession or condition may be expressed by the subjunctive 
without though or if, the verb preceding the subject, which is 
sometimes omitted. 

I. Concession 

Try as we may, we cannot swim to that rock. 
Say what he will, he can never convince me. 
Come what will, I'll stand my ground. 
Be that as it may, my mind is made up. 



122 VEEBS 

II. Condition 

Were I asked, I could tell all the facts. [If I were asked, etc.] 
Had I known, I would have written to you. [If I had known, etc ] 
I shall be twenty years old, come Tuesday. [If Tuesday come, etc.] 
I will go, rain or shine. [If it rain, or if it shine, etc.] 
Be he prince or be he pauper, every guest is welcome here. 

Note. The subjunctive in these concessive and conditional uses is really 
the same as that in exhortations (§ 278). " Try [we] as we may " means liter- 
ally, "Let us try as hard as we can," and this has the force of "However 
hard we try " or "Although we try ever so hard." 

282. After as if (as though), the past subjunctive is used. 

He looks as if he were about to speak. [Not : as if he was about to 
speak.] 

I act as if I were crazy. [Not : as if I was crazy.] 

283. The subjunctive may express not what is or was, but 
what would be or would have been, the case. 

It were safer to travel by day. [It would be safer, etc.] 
I had been wiser had I forded the river. [I should have been wiser if 
I had.] 

This construction is old-fashioned. Modern English commonly uses should 
(or ivould) be, should (or would) have been, instead. 

284. The subjunctive is occasionally used after that, lest, be- 
fore, until, etc., in subordinate clauses referring to the future 
and commonly expressing purpose or expectation. 

Take heed that he escape not. [Purpose.] 
Give him food lest he perish. [Purpose.] 
Let us tarry until he come. [Expectation.] 

This construction is confined to poetry and the solemn or 
formal style. In ordinary language the indicative or a verb- 
phrase with may is used. 

Take heed that he does not escape. 

Give him food in order that he may not perish. 

Let us wait till he comes. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 123 

285. The past subjunctive had is common in had rather and 

similar phrases. 

I had rather wait a day. 

You had better leave the room. 

He had as lief go as stay. 

Note. Had in this construction is sometimes condemned as erroneous or 
inelegant; but the idiom is well-established. 

Might better, would better, and would rather may be used instead of had 
better, etc. ; but would better is improper in the first person. 

286 . The subj unctive forms are often replaced by verb-phrases 
containing the auxiliaries may, might, could, would, should. 

1. In wishes (§ 277). 

May you live long and prosper ! 

May he never repent this act ! 

Ah, could I but live a hundred years ! 

2. In concessions and conditions (§§ 279-280). 

r 1 i 

Thought you y should fail, there would still be hope. 
I he J 

f 1 1 
If -J you y should fail, all would be lost. 

Ue J 

3. In sentences expressing not what is or was, but what 
would be or would have been, the case (§ 283). 

I should *\ 

You would > write to Charles if I knew his address. 

He would J 

It would have been better to telegraph. 

4. In subordinate clauses introduced by that, lest, before, 
until, etc. (§ 284). 

I will take care that nothing may prevent. 
I took care that nothing ■< , ,, y prevent. 
The general determined to wait until fresh troops should arrive. 



124 VEEBS 

POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES 
USE OP MODAL AUXILIARIES 

287. Several auxiliary verbs are used to form verb-phrases indicating 
ability, possibility, obligation, or necessity. 

Such verb-phrases are called potential phrases, that is, " phrases 
of possibility." 

The auxiliary verbs used in potential phrases are : — may, can, 
must, might, could, would, and should. They are called modal 
auxiliaries and are followed by the infinitive without to. 

We may ask him a few questions. 

I can manage a motor car. 

You must inquire the way. 

He might give you a chance. 

I could show you his house if you would permit me. 

I should enjoy a sea-voyage. 

Note. The fact that give, etc., in such phrases as can give, are infinitives 
may be seen by comparing " I can strike " with " I am able to strike" " I may 
strike " with " I am permitted to strike" " I must strike " with " I am obliged 
to strike " and so on. In earlier periods of the language, when the infinitive had 
a special ending (-an or -en) , the nature of the construction was unmistakable. 

288. Potential phrases may be arranged in tables of conjuga- 
tion, like that on pp. 108-110. They are often called, collec- 
tively, the potential mood. 

Active Voice 

Present Tense 
singular plural 

1. I may strike. 1 1. We may strike. 

2. Thou mayst strike. 2. You may strike. 

3. He may strike. 3. They may strike. 

Past Tense 

1. I might strike. 2 1. We might strike. 

2. Thou mightst strike. 2. You might strike. 

3. He might strike. 3. They might strike. 

1 So / can strike, etc. 2 So I could strike, etc. 



POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES 125 

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 
singular plural 

1. I may have struck. 1 1. We may have struck. 

2. Thou mayst have struck. 2. You may have struck. 

3. He may have struck. 3. They may have struck. 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

1. I might have struck. 2 1. We might have struck. 

2. Thou mightst have struck. 2. You might have struck. 

3. He might have struck. 3. They might have struck. 

Passive Voice 
Present Tense 
I may be struck, etc. We may be struck, etc. 

Past Tense 
I might be struck, etc. We might be struck, etc. 

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 
I may have been struck, etc. We may have been struck, etc. 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 
I might have been struck, etc. We might have been struck, etc. 

289. Can (past tense, could) regularly indicates that the 
subject is able to do something. 

John can ride a bicycle. 
Harry could swim. 

290. May (past tense, might) indicates (1) permission, (2) 
possibility or doubtful intention, (3) a wish. 

(1) You may borrow my pencil. 

I told him that he might join our party. 

(2) He may accept my offer. 
You might not like it. 

(3) May good fortune attend you ! 

1 So 7 can have struck, etc. 2 So I could have struck, etc. 



126 VEEBS 

291. In asking permission, the proper form is w May I?" 
not w Can I ? " With negatives, however, can is more common 
than may, except in questions. Thus, — 

Question. May I (or mayn't I) play ball this morning ? 
Answer. No, you cannot; but you may play this afternoon. 

292. Must expresses necessity or obligation. 

We must all die sometime. 

You must wait for the train. 

You must not be discouraged by failure. 

Note. Must, though originally a past tense, is in modern English almost 
always used as a present. Past necessity may be expressed by had to with 
the infinitive : as, — "I had to wait for the train." 

293. Ought with the present infinitive, expresses a present 
duty or moral obligation ; with the perfect infinitive, a past duty 
or obligation. Should is often used in the same sense. 

I ought to write that letter. [Present.] 

You ought not to object. [Present.] 

This roof ought to be mended. [Present.] 

I ought to have known better. [Past.] 

Your dog ought not to have been unleashed. [Past.] 

You should be careful. [Present.] 

The garden should have been weeded yesterday, [Past.] 

Note. Ought is really an old past tense of the verb owe, but is now always 
a present. Its former meaning may be seen in Dame Quickly's "You ought 
him a thousand pound " (Shakspere, 1 Henry IV, iii. 3. 152). 

Had should never be prefixed to ought. 

Correct Incorrect 

You ought to stay at home. You had ought to stay at home. 

We oughtn't to make so much We hadn't ought to make so much 

noise. noise. 

John ought to begin, ought n't he ? John ought to begin, had n't he ? 

294. Should and ought sometimes express what would cer- 
tainly be expected in the case supposed. 



SHOULD AND WOULD 127 

rm _ (should "1 „ 

Three weeks « _ *, # „ ^suffice. 



T „ , . . . (should *] 

If the tram is on time, he< , . . X arrive at six. 

295c Would in all three persons sometimes indicates habitual 
action in the past. 

I would gaze at the sea for hours at a time. 

Whenever we asked Edward about his adventures, he would begin to 
talk of something else. 



SPECIAL RULES FOR SHOULD AND WOULD 

296. Should is the past tense of shall, and would is the past 
tense of will. Hence the rules for should and would are similar 
to those for shall and will (§§ 233-239). But there is much 
variation, especially in subordinate clauses. 

I. m SIMPLE SENTENCES AND INDEPENDENT CLAUSES 

297. Except in certain kinds of subordinate clauses, the 
distinction between should and would is practically the same 
as that between shall and will. 

When the auxiliary verb expresses futurity without any idea 
of wishing, consenting, or the like, the forms are as follows : — 

Assertions (Declarative) 
singular plural 

1. I should fall. 1. We should fall. 

2. Thou wouldst fall. 2. You would fall. 

3. He would fall. 3. They would fall. 

Questions (Interrogative) 
singular plural 

1. Should I fall? 1. Should we fall? 

2. Shouldst thou fall? 2. Should you fall? 

3. Would he fall? 3. Would they fall? 



128 VEEBS 

298. Common errors are the use of i" would for / should in 
assertions, and that of Would I? and Would you ? for Should 
I? and Should you ? in questions. 

The correct forms are shown in the following sentences. 

I. I should (we should) and I would (we would) in assertions : — 

1. I should break my neck if I fell. 

2. I should hesitate to try this experiment. 

3. I should n't wonder if he escaped. 

4. We should regret any misunderstanding. 

5. I should wish to examine the plans again before deciding. 

6. I should be glad to accept any fair offer. 

7. I would give five dollars for a ticket. 

8. I would help you if I could. 

9. I would never agree to such a proposition. 

10. We would rather die than surrender. 

11. We would pay our bill to-day if we had the money. 

12. I would gladly accept any fair offer. 

In the first six examples, I" (or we) should is correct, because 
the auxiliary gives no suggestion of the speaker's will (or 
volition). In the last six, on the contrary, the speaker's will- 
ingness or desire is plainly expressed by the auxiliary, and / 
(or we) would is therefore used. 

Note. In such sentences as the fifth, — "I should wish to examine the plans 
again before deciding," — wish expresses volition. Hence " I would wish " is 
incorrect, for it expresses volition twice and can mean only " I desire to wish." 
On the same principle we say "I should prefer," "I should be glad," etc. 
(see §236). 

Sometimes either I would or I should may be used, but with a difference in 
meaning. Thus, in the eighth example, " I should help you " might be substi- 
tuted for " I would help you." This change, however, makes the remark sound 
less cordial and sympathetic ; for / should (unlike J would) gives no hint of 
the speaker's desire to be of service. 

II. Should I (or we) ? in questions : — 

1. Should I break my neck if I fell ? 

2. Should I be poisoned if I ate those berries ? 

3. Should I take cold without my overcoat ? 

4. Should I disturb you if I were to practise my music lesson ? 

5. Should we run aground if we missed the channel ? 



SHOULD AND WOULD 129 

Note. Would I? is confined, for the most part, to questions in which one 
repeats the words or thought of another. Thus, — " You would give five dollars 
for a ticket." " Would I? No, I would n't ! " In this use it is chiefly colloquial. 

III. Should you ? and Would you ? in questions : — 

1. Should you drown if the boat were to capsize ? [Yes, I" should 
drown, for I do not know how to swim.] 

2. Should you despair if this plan were a failure ? [No, I should not, 
for I have other resources.] 

3. Should you think that ten yards of velvet would be enough ? [Yes, 
I should think so.] 

4. Should you be offended if I were to speak frankly ? [No, I should 
not be offended.] 

5. Should you wish to examine the plans again before deciding ? 
[Yes, I should (see note under I, above).] 

6. Would you wear a hat or a cap ? [I would wear a cap if I were you.] 

7. Would you study Greek if you were in my place ? [Yes, I would.] 

8. Would you accept my apology if it were offered? [Certainly, I 
would accept it gladly.] 

9. Would you be so kind as to lend me your compasses ? [Certainly 
I would lend them, if I had not lost them.] 

10. Would you allow me to use your name as a reference ? [I would.] 

The choice between should and would in these sentences 
corresponds to the form expected in the answer (§ 238). 

299. The chief occasions on which Would you? is correct 
are : — (1) in asking advice in a matter of doubt, and (2) in 
asking consent or permission. 

In examples 6 and 7 in § 298, III, the speaker asks advice ; in 8, 9, 
and 10, he asks consent or permission. 

300. Note that the proper forms are L should like, Should 1 
like ? and Should you like ? 

I should like to read that book. 
Should I like to go to Rome ? Indeed, I should. 

Should you like to receive a copy of our catalogue ? [I should like to 
receive one.] 

Note. Would is very common in these phrases, even among writers of 
repute, but it is still contrary to the best usage. The reason for should is the 
same as in I should wish (§ 298, I, note). 



130 VEEBS 

301. I'd and we'd are contractions of / would and we 
would. Hence they can never stand for i" should and we 
should (§235). 

302. Should in the second and third persons may be used in 
simple declarative sentences and independent clauses to ex- 
press the will of the speaker (§ 239). 

If I had my way, you should be prosecuted. [That is: I would take 
care that you were prosecuted.] 

If I had the money, you should be paid immediately. [Compare : You 
shall be paid.] 

If I were you, she should not regret her generosity. [Compare : She 
shall not regret it.] 



II. SHOULD AND WOULD IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 

303. In some kinds of subordinate clauses, the use of should 
and would differs considerably from that in simple sentences 
and principal clauses. 

The following classes require attention : — (1) clauses of pur- 
pose or expectation (§ 304), (2) conditional and concessive 
clauses (§ 305), (3) clauses expressing volition not that of 
the subject (§ 306), (4) clauses stating something as an idea 
(§ 307), (5) indirect discourse (§ 308). 

304. In subordinate clauses expressing the purpose or expec- 
tation with which anything is done, shall and should are used 
in all three persons. A 

Carleton took great pains that<| you ^should understand the details 
of the treaty. L they J ( 

Scott s fvery careful that nothing 1 , ,, > interfere with his plans. 

(I "] 
They took every precaution lest^j you y should suspect the plot. 

Ue j 

- . n i 

Anderson waited patiently until X you > should arrive with the horses. 

Ithey J 
We strained every nerve to reach the cave before the storm should break. 



SHOULD AND WOULD 131 

305. In conditional or concessive clauses expressing a future 
supposed case doubtfully, shall and should are used in all three 
persons ; but will and would are proper when the subject is 
thought of as wishing or consenting. 



l if < you > i 
[he J 



1. What would happen if -\ you y should not carry out the commander's 
instructions ? 

f 1 1 

2. If s you y should miss the steamer, our friends would be alarmed. 

Ihe j 
„ , T „ ( shall 1 . , , . , f shall "1 

3. Wftoeterl^Hf violate this law | should j pay the penalty. 

[That is: If anybody shall violate, etc.] 

(I } 

4. Whenever -\ you y shall find an opportunity, let us try the experi- 

Ue J 
ment. [That is : If ever I shall find, etc.] 

5. He promised to assist you whenever you should need help. [When- 
ever = if ever.] 

(we ^ 

6. Though^ you y should fail, others would make the attempt. [Con- 
cession.] I they } 

7. Though Evans should disappoint me, I should not lose confidence 
in him. r I ^ 

8. Vernon will do his part if i you y will cooperate with him. 



(I ") ItheyJ 

d. If J you y 



9. If 1 you y will only make the effort, success is certain. 
[he J 

(I } 

10. Edmund would reveal the secret if -l you y would assist him in his 
search for the treasure. L they J 

11. If we would take pains, our parents would be satisfied. 

12. Whoever will join us may be sure of a pleasant and profitable 
journey. [That is : If any one will join us, he may be sure, etc.] 

When a future supposed case is admitted or conceded as certain, 
will may be used in the second and third persons to denote 
mere futurity. 

Though < , y will certainly f ail, -l . > may make the attempt. 
Though the ship will not sink for some hours, let us take to the boats. 



132 VERBS 

306. Shall and should are often used in the second and third 
persons in subordinate clauses to express volition which is not 
that of the subject. 

Templeton insists that you shall accompany him. 
This letter directs where you shall station yourself. 
We gave orders that the gates should be closed. 

My wish is that^ ? ^should remain at home. 

The law prescribed when and to whom the tax should be paid. 

307. When a clause with that states something, not as a 
fact but as an idea to be considered, should is the proper 
auxiliary in all three persons. 

I am not surprised that you should find your lesson rather difficult. 
[That is : f f When I consider the matter, I do not find the idea surprising.' f 
In " I am not surprised that you find" etc., the subordinate clause makes 
the statement as a fact.] 

It is strange that Tom should neglect his swimming lessons. [Contrast : 
It is strange that Tom neglects.'] 

That Napoleon should have chafed at captivity is only natural. [Con- 
trast: That Napoleon chafed.] 

308. For shall and will, should and would, in indirect dis- 
course, see §§438-439. 

THE INFINITIVE 

309. The infinitive is a verb-form that has some of the proper- 
ties of a noun (§ 28). Its two-sided character comes out clearly 
when it is used as the subject of a sentence. 

1. To hope is our only resource. 

2. To flatter is not my custom. 

3. To sleep was an impossibility. 

4. To surrender seemed disgraceful. 

5. To choose wisely was my greatest difficulty. 

6. To scale the wall was the work of a moment. 

Each of these infinitives (to hope, to flatter, etc.) is a noun, 
for each is the simple subject of a sentence. Besides, an ordi- 
nary noun may be substituted for each infinitive with no change 



INFINITIVES 133 

in meaning; as, — "Hope is our only resource " ; "Flattery is 
not my custom " ; "Sleep was an impossibility." 

But each of these infinitives is also a verb, — for (1) it ex- 
presses action; (2) it may be modified by an adverb, as in 
No. 5 ; (3) it takes an object if it is transitive, as in No. 6. 

An infinitive (as the examples show) has regularly no sub- 
ject and therefore lacks both number and person. Hence it is not 
bound by the general rule for the agreement of a verb with 
its subject (§ 222). From this fact it derives its name, infinitive, 
which means " unrestricted " or " free from limitations." * 

310. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a 
noun. It expresses action or state in the simplest possible way, without 
person or number. 

It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the 
sign of the infinitive. 

To is not, in strictness, a part of the infinitive, but it may 
be so regarded for convenience, since the infinitive, in most of 
its uses, is preceded by to. 

Note. To sometimes stands for an infinitive in careless speech: as, — ■ 
"You may go if you wish to " (that is, "if you wish to go"). Such expres- 
sions are to be avoided. It is better to say, " You may go if you wish." 

311. The infinitive often lacks to, especially in verb-phrases 
with the auxiliaries will, shall, may, can, must, might, could, 
would, should, do, did. For examples, see pp. 102, 114, 124. 

312. The infinitive has two tenses, — the present and the 
perfect. 

1. The present infinitive is the verb in its simplest form, usu- 
ally preceded by to : as, — to live, to teach, to bind, to strike. 

2. The perfect infinitive is made by prefixing the infinitive of 
the auxiliary verb have to the past participle (§ 243) : as, — 
to have lived, to have taught, to have bound, to have struck. 

1 For the so-called infinitive clause, in which the infinitive has a subject of 
a peculiar kind, see §§ 324-328. 



134 VERBS 

313. An infinitive may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial 
phrase, or an adverbial clause. 

To write legibly is a valuable accomplishment. 

It would be useless to search longer. 

They allowed him to go in peace. [Adverbial phrase.] 

To dive among those weeds would be folly. 

Theodore promises to come when I send for him. [Adverbial clause.] 

No modifier should be inserted between to and the infinitive. 

I beg you to inquire carefully into this matter. [Not: to carefully 
inquire.] 

Mr. Harris moved to postpone the question indefinitely. [Not: to 
indefinitely postpone.] 

I expect always to be poor. [Not : to always be poor.] 

Note. Careless writers pay slight attention to this rule, and some good 
writers and speakers defy it, hoping to break it down. But it is unquestion- 
ably still in accord with the best usage. 

314. The infinitive may take an object if its meaning allows. 

I long to visit Italy. 
My mother feared to enter the house. 
To launch a boat was impossible. 
To grant your request is a pleasure. 

To give him money is useless. [Money is the direct object of to give, 
and him the indirect object.] 

315. The infinitive is used in a variety of constructions, — 
(1) as a noun, (2) as an adjective modifier or adverbial modifier, 
(3) in the so-called infinitive clause. 



I. THE INFINITIVE AS NOUN 

316. The infinitive is used in various noun constructions, — as 
subject, as predicate nominative, as nominative of exclamation, 
as appositive, as object of certain prepositions, as modifier. 

317. An infinitive with or without a complement or modifiers, may 
be used as the subject of a sentence, as a predicate nominative, or as 
an appositive. 



INFINITIVES 135 

To descend was extremely difficult. [Subject.] 

To secure a seat was impossible. 

To sing well requires practice. 

His delight was to travel. [Predicate nominative.] 

The governor's policy is to wait. 

My wish is to see you immediately. 

To decide was to act. [The first infinitive is the subject, and the second 
is a predicate nominative.] 

Both alternatives, to advance and to retreat, seemed equally hazardous. 
[Apposition with the subject.] 

My first plan, to tunnel under the wall, proved a failure. 

He has but one aim in life, to succeed. [Apposition with the object.] 

I have written with a definite purpose, to dissuade you. 

I give you three choices, — to buy, to lease, or to build. 

318. An infinitive in the predicate is often in apposition 
with the expletive subject it. 

It was a pleasure to see him. [Instead of : To see him was a pleasure.] 

It is easy to understand you. 

It will be impossible tor forget. 

It proved very difficult to find evidence against him. 

In this use the infinitive, though grammatically in apposition with it, is 
really the subject of, the thought (see § 120, 2). 

319. The infinitive may be used as the object of the prep- 
ositions but, except, about. 

There was nothing to do but walk (or to walk). 
He will do anything except resign (or except to resign). 
We are about to object. [An idiom expressing futurity.] 
The train is about to start. 

Note. Can but and cannot but are distinct idioms. (1) In " I can but thank 
you," but is an adverb (= only). The sentence means: "I can only thank 
you — simply that and nothing more! " (2) In "I cannot but thank you," 
but is a preposition (= except). The idiom is shortened from "I cannot 
choose but thank you," — that is, "I have no choice except to do so," or, in 
other words, " I cannot help it." 

The infinitive after for (now a gross error) was once in good use : as, — 

What sweeter music can we bring 
Than a carol for to sing. — Herrick. 



136 VEEBS 

320. The infinitive may be used as a nominative of exclamation 

(§ 88, 4). 

To sleep ! perchance to dream I 

To suffer and be silent ! 

to be a boy again ! [A wish.] 

to have lived in the brave days of old ! 

II. THE INFINITIVE AS A MODIFIER 

321. An infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or 
as an adverbial modifier of an adjective. 

In this use the infinitive is said to depend on the word which it 
modifies. 

With Nouns With Adjectives 

(Adjective Modifier) (Adverbial Modifier) 

An opportunity to advance came. The men are ready to advance. 

Determination to win brings success. John is eager to win. 

Willingness to oblige makes friends. I shall be glad to oblige you. 

I wish I had the ability to swim. We are all able to swim. 

His anxiety to please us was laughable. He is anxious to please everybody. 

Note. This use is due to the fact that the infinitive with to is really a 
prepositional phrase (§42). Thus, "determination to win" is equivalent to 
"determination for victory," and "eager to win" to " eager for victory." 
The adjective force of the infinitive comes out clearly in "nothing to eat" 
where to eat is practically synonymous with eatable. 

In its adjective use, the present infinitive sometimes shows no distinction 
in voice, so that the active and the passive are interchangeable: as, — "a 
house to let " or " to be let" ; " an axe to grind" or " to be ground." In such 
expressions the active form is usually preferable. 

322. The infinitive without to may be used as an adjective 
modifier after the direct object of see, hear, feel, and some 
other verbs of like meaning. 

I saw the policeman arrest him. 
Hear the sea roar ! 
Can you feel the ground tremble f 
Ruth watched the tide come in. 

In this use the infinitive is practically equivalent to a participle. Compare 
"I heard him shout" with "I heard him shouting." Hence the substantive 
may be regarded as an object, and the infinitive as its modifier. But the 
construction closely approaches that of an infinitive clause (§§ 324-325) . 



INFINITIVES 137 

323. An infinitive may modify a verb (i) by completing its meaning, 
or (2) by expressing the purpose of the action. 

I. Complementary Infinitive 

The ship began to roll. 

The rain continued to fall heavily. 

Every boy desires to succeed. 

The officer neglected to watch his men. 

The prisoners attempted to escape. 

You promised to come to-night. 

After dare, the complementary infinitive may or may not have to. Thus, — 
H I dare not doit"; " Who will dare to speak ? " 

II. Infinitive of Purpose 

He went to New York to study medicine. 
He opened his lips to speak. 
She closed her eyes to shut out the sight. 
Elsa lifted the cover to see what was inside. 
The conductor signalled to stop the train. 
Harold waited to assist his teacher. 

Both the complementary infinitive and the infinitive of purpose 
may be regarded as adverbial phrases modifying the verb. 

Note. After some verbs the infinitive approaches the construction of a 
pure noun and is often regarded as an object. Thus, — "I desire to see you " 
(compare "I desire a sight of you"). It is simpler, however, to regard all 
such infinitives as complementary and to treat them as adverbial modifiers. 
For it is impossible to distinguish the construction of the infinitive after cer- 
tain adjectives (as in "I am eager to see you") from its construction after 
such verbs as wish and desire. 



m. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE 

324. A peculiar infinitive construction often replaces a that- 
clause as the object of a verb. Thus, — 



I wished I that he should 9°' 
\him to go. 



In the first sentence, the noun clause that he should go is the 
object of wished; in the second, this clause is replaced by him to 



138 VEEBS 

go, but without any change in meaning. This expression con- 
sists of two parts : — (1) him, a pronoun in the objective case, 
which replaces the subject he; and (2) an infinitive to go, 
which replaces the predicate should go. Thus it is plain that 
him to go is also a noun clause, of which him is the subject, 
and to go the predicate. Such an expression is called an 
infinitive clause. 

325. A kind of clause, consisting of a substantive in the objective 
case followed by an infinitive, may be used as the object of certain 
verbs. 

Such clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said 
to be the subject of the infinitive. 

The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case. 

Infinitive clauses are used (1) after verbs of wishing, command- 
ing, advising, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of believ- 
ing, declaring, and perceiving} Thus, — 

The colonel commanded them to charge [ = that they should charge] . 

I believe him to be trustworthy [ = that he is trustworthy] . 

The judge declared him to be a dangerous man [ = that he was, etc.]. 

After a few verbs the infinitive without to is used in infini- 
tive clauses. 

Mr. Esmond bade his servant pack a portmanteau and get horses. 
[Compare : ordered his servant to pack, etc.] 

What makes him cry ? [Compare : What causes him to cry f] 
I let him sleep. [Compare : I allowed him to sleep.] 

Note. Ordinarily the infinitive cannot assert and hence has no subject 
(§ 309). The infinitive clause is, therefore, a peculiar exception, for him to go 
makes an assertion as clearly as that he should go does. That him is really 
the subject of to go and not the object of wished is manifest, for / wished 
him makes no sense. The object of wished is the whole clause (him to go). 

Originally, to be sure, the noun or pronoun in the objective was felt to be 
the object of the main verb, and this relation may still be felt in " I ordered 
him to go " ; but even here the real object of ordered is the clause (as may be 
seen in " I ordered the castle to be blown up "). The substantive has come to 
be the real subject of the infinitive, and should be so treated in parsing. 

1 After verbs of wishing, etc., they express purpose (§ 403) ; after verbs of 
believing, etc., they are in indirect discourse (§431). 



THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE 139 

326. A. predicate pronoun after to be in an infinitive clause is 
in the objective case, agreeing with the subject of the infinitive. 

Care should be taken not to confuse this construction with 
the predicate nominative (§ 88, 2). 

Predicate Pronoun after to be Predicate Nominative 

I believed it to be her. I believed that it was she. 

We know the author to be him. We know that the author is he. 

The author is known to be he. 
He thought Richard to be me. He thought that Richard was I. 

Richard was thought to be J. 
We suspected the intruders to be We suspected that the intruders 
them. were they. 

Note the case of the relatives and of the predicate pronouns in 
the following sentences : — 

A boy whom I thought to be honest deceived me. [ Whom is the subject 
of the infinitive to be and is therefore in the objective case.] 

A boy who, I thought, was honest deceived me. [Who is the subject 
of was and is therefore nominative. I thought is parenthetical (§ 502).] 

A boy whom I believe to be him just passed me. 

A boy who, I believe, was he, just passed me. 

327. An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition 
for. Thus,— 

I wrote for him to come. [The clause him to come is the object of for; 
him is the subject of to come.] 

They are waiting on the shore 

For the bark to take them home. — Noel. 

I long for him to come back. 

328. An infinitive clause with for may be used as a subject, 
as a predicate nominative, or as the object of a preposition. 

For us to delay would be fatal to your enterprise. [Compare : Our 
delay would be fatal.] 

Our best plan is for the boat to shoot the rapids. [Predicate nominative 
agreeing with the subject plan.] 

I see no way out of the difficulty except for them to offer an apology. 
[Compare : except the offer of an apology on their part.] 



C^K^f (A 



VERBS 

PARTICIPLES 

329. Certain words unite in themselves some of the prop- 
erties of adjectives with some of the properties of verbs. Such 
words are called participles (§ 31). Thus, — 

Shattered and sinking, but gallantly returning the enemy's fire, the 
frigate drifted out to sea. 

Shattered j sinking, and returning are verb-forms which are in 
some respects similar to infinitives : for (1) they express action ; 
(2) they have no subject to agree with, and hence have neither 
person nor number ; and (3) one of them takes a direct object. 
They differ from infinitives, however, in that they resemble, 
not nouns, but adjectives, for they describe the substantive 
frigate to which they belong. 

Such verb-forms are called participles, because they share (or 
participate in) the nature of adjectives. 

330. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which 
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in 
such a way as to describe or limit a substantive. 

Who thundering comes on blackest steed ? — Byron. 

Clinging to the horns of the altar, voiceless she stood. — De Quincey. 

Deserted, surrounded, outnumbered, and with everything at stake, he 
did not even deign to stand on the defensive. — Macaulay. 

Shrouded in such baleful vapors, the genius of Burns was never seen 
in clear azure splendor, enlightening the world. — Carlyle. 

FORMS OF PARTICIPLES 

331. Verbs have three participles, — the present, the past, 
and the perfect. 

332. The present participle ends in -ing. It usually describes 
an action as taking place at the same time with some other 

action. 

Tom came sauntering up the path. 

The beggar shambled down the steps, grumbling. 

Beaching for the flower, I lost my balance. 



PAETICIPLES 



141 



333. The present participle often refers to time preceding 
that denoted by the predicate verb. 

Rising from his chair, he bowed. [That is, when he had risen.] 
Learning that your brother was in trouble, I hastened to his aid. 

334. The past participle is always associated with the idea of past 
time or completed action. 

I. The past participle of a weak verb has the same form as the past 
tense. 1 



Present Tense 

I mend chairs. 
I sweep the rooms. 
I seek treasure. 
I lose money. 



Past Tense 

I mended the chairs. 
I swept the rooms. 
I sought treasure. 
I lost money. 



Past Participle 

The chairs are, mended. 
The rooms are swept. 
Treasure is sought. 
The money is lost. 



2. The past participle of strong verbs shows a change from the vowel 
of the present tense. 

All strong verbs had originally the ending en (n) in the past parti- 
ciple, but this ending has been lost in many verbs. 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


He speaks. 


He spoke. 


(He has) spoken. 


He draws. 


He drew. 


(He has) drawn. 


He sings. 


He sang. 


(He has) sung. 


He wins. 


He won. 


(He has) won. 



The forms show great variety and must be learned by 
practice. (See pp. 291-297 for a list.) 

335. The perfect participle is made by prefixing having to the 
past participle. 

Having mended the watch, I sent it to the owner. 
Having lost his money, James was forced to walk home. 

336. The present participle is used in forming the progres- 
sive verb-phrases (§§ 255-259). 

The past participle is used in forming the complete tenses 
(§§ 242-244) and the passive voice (§ 247). 



1 The only exceptions are trifling differences in spelling. 



142 VERBS 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES 

337. Since the participle has adjective properties, its con- 
structions are in the main like those of adjectives. 

338. A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it 
describes or limits. 

Kupert, missing his companion, stepped to the door. [The present 

participle missing belongs to the subject Rupert.] 

Rising, she opened the window. [Rising belongs to she.] 
I heard the rain falling. [Falling belongs to the object rain.] 
Tom's arm, broken by the blow, hung useless. [The past participle 

broken belongs to the subject arm.] 

Having climbed the hill with great difficulty, I stopped to rest. [The 

perfect participle having climbed belongs to the subject I.] 

339. A participle should not be used without some substantive to 
which it may belong. 

Right : Entering the room, we saw a strange sight. [The participle 
entering belongs to the pronoun we.] 

Wrong : Entering the room, a strange sight was seen. [Since there is 
no substantive to which entering can belong, it has no construction.] 

Apparent exceptions are concerning, considering, pending, 
generally speaking, etc. The first three may be classed as prepo- 
sitions (§ 355), the last as an independent participle. 

We fought every day, and, generally speaking, twice every day. — De 
Quincey. 

Note. The rule in § 339 does not apply to such phrases as on entering, 
after investigating, etc., in which the words in -ing are not participles, but 
verbal nouns (§ 348). Thus the following sentences are grammatical: — " On 
entering the room, a strange sight appeared "; "After investigating the sub- 
ject, the plan was adopted." Such expressions, however, should be used with 
caution, since they are sometimes awkward or ambiguous. 

340. A participle may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial 
phrase, or an adverbial clause. 

Smiling brightly, she extended her hand. [Adverb.] 

He leaped forward, shrieking with all his might. [Adverbial phrase.] 

Laughing until he cried, he sank into a chair. [Adverbial clause.] 



PARTICIPLES 143 

341. A participle may take an object if its meaning allows. 

I found the old man mending his net. 
Lifting the box, he moved toward the door. 

Giving me a friendly nod, he passed on. [Here nod is the direct object 
of giving, and me is the indirect object.] 

The participle, with its modifiers and such other words as are attached to 
it, is sometimes called a participial phrase. 

342. A participle may be used as a pure adjective. 

A grinning boy confronted me. 
A battered hat hung on the peg. 
Kate was playing with a broken doll. 
We could hear a rushing stream. 
Willing hands make light work. 
He was struck by a spent ball. 

343. The past participle is often used as a predicate adjective 
expressing state or condition. 

This construction is easily confused with the passive of verbs. 
The distinction may be seen in the following examples : — 

The rain began to fall heavily, and every time a gust of wind struck 
us we were drenched by it. 

When the rain at last ceased, we were drenched [that is, very wef] . 

In the first sentence, were drenched is the past passive of 
the verb drench (compare the active "every time a gust of 
wind struck us, it drenched us "). In the second, the participle 
drenched expresses mere condition, and is therefore a predi- 
cate adjective. The distinction, however, is not always sharp, 
and in cases of doubt the phrase may be taken together as a 
passive verb. 

Note. The real test is the following. Whenever a person or thing is dis- 
tinctly present to the mind as the doer of the action, we have a passive verb- 
p/irase. Whenever, on the other hand, the participle merely describes condition 
with no thought of its being the result of an antecedent act, the construction 
is that of a predicate adjective (§ 172, 3). 



144 VEEBS 

Nominative Absolute 

344. A substantive, with the participle belonging to it, is 
often used to make a peculiar form of adverbial modifying 
phrase: as, — ^ • 

The wind failing, we lowered the sail. 

Here the wind failing is equivalent to an adverbial phrase (on 
the failure of the wind) or an adverbial clause (when the wind 
failed). It defines the time of the action. 

The wind failing, *] 

On the failure of the wind, I we lowered the sail. 

When the wind failed, J 

345. A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time, 
or circumstances of an action. 

This is called the absolute construction. 

The substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative 
absolute. 

My knife slipping, I cut myself severely. [The phrase my knife slip- 
ping is equivalent to because my knife slipped : it expresses cause.] 

Two days having elapsed, we again set forward. [The phrase in italics 
is equivalent to when two days had elapsed : it expresses time.] 

Evenings he read aloud, his wife sewing by his side. [The phrase ex^ 
presses one of the circumstances that attended the reading.] 

This done, proceed to business. [The phrase this done is equivalent to 
the clause since (or when) this is done, and indicates cause or time.] 

Note. This construction is called absolute (that is, " free " or " loosened ") 
because the substantive is not in any one of the constructions (subject, object, 
apposition, etc.) which ordinarily attach nouns grammatically to other words 
in the sentence. Nevertheless, the whole phrase, though standing apart from 
the rest of the sentence, is in meaning an adverbial modifier of some verb. 

346. The participle being is sometimes omitted in the ab- 
solute construction. 

Allen once mayor, my chance of advancement would be ruined. [That 
is : Allen once being mayor.] 

Peter stood before me, his hands in his pockets. 
His clothing in shreds, he presented a sorry sight. 



PARTICIPIAL NOUNS 145 

VEKBAL NOUNS IN -ING (PARTICIPIAL NOUNS) 

347. English has a large and important class of verbal nouns 
that end in -ing, and that serve as the names of actions. 

These are identical in form with present participles, for which 
they are frequently mistaken. The distinction, however, is clear, 
for the present participle is never used as the name of an ac- 
tion. Hence no such word in -ing that is a subject or an object, 
or stands in any other noun construction, can be a participle. 

While I was travelling in Mexico, I met with an accident. [Participle.] 
Travelling broadens the mind. [Verbal noun, used as subject.] 
He enjoys travelling. [Verbal noun, used as object of a verb.] 
He spends his time in travelling. [Verbal noun, object of a preposition.] 
Tom's favorite exercise is swimming. [Verbal noun, predicate nom- 
inative.] 

This sport, fishing, has been called the contemplative man's recreation. 
[Verbal noun, in apposition with sport.'] 

That nouns in -ing are real nouns may be proved by putting 
ordinary nouns in their place. 

Travelling broadens the mind. Travel broadens the mind. 

Talking is useless. Talk is useless. 

He is afraid of falling. He is afraid of a fall. 

348. From nearly every English verb there may be formed a verbal 
noun in -ing. 

Verbal nouns in -ing have the form of present participles, but the 
construction of nouns. 

They are often called participial nouns. 

Such nouns are freely used, either by themselves or in a 
series along with ordinary nouns. 

Mining is a dangerous occupation. 
Painting and sculpture are sister arts. 

The Indians of Massachusetts spent their time in hunting, fishing, 
agriculture, and warfare. 

Reading, writing, and arithmetic are jocosely called ff the three r's." 



146 PARTICIPIAL NOUNS 

349. Verbal nouns in -ing have certain properties of the 
verb. 

1. Verbal nouns in -ing may take a direct or an indirect object if their 
meaning allows. 

Digging gold seems to the uninitiated like finding buried treasure. 

Lending him money is useless ; it merely fosters his unthrifty habits. 
[Here the noun lending, which is the simple subject of the sentence, 
takes both a direct object {money) and an indirect object (him), precisely 
as the verb lend might do.] 

2. A verbal noun in -ing may take an adverbial modifier. 

Speaking extemporaneously is good practice. [Here the verbal noun 
speaking is the simple subject ; but it is modified by the adverb extempo- 
raneously, precisely as if it were a verb.] 

But verbal nouns in -ing, like other nouns, may be modified 
by adjectives. 

Extemporaneous speaking is good practice. 

3. To the verbal nouns being and having, past participles may be 
attached, so as to give the effect of voice and tense. 

After being instructed in my duties, I was ordered to wait on the king. 
There were grave doubts expressed as to his having seen the mastodon. 
After having been treated in so harsh a fashion, I had no wish to repeat 
the interview. v 

Such expressions are verbal'noun-phrases. M 

350. Verbal nouns in -ing are similarJ^rsome of their con- 
structions to infinitives used as nouns (^^35). 



Infinitive as Noun Verbal Noun in -ing 

To swim was difficult. Swwmdng was difficult. 

My business is to make shoes. M^Spasiness is making shoes. 

To see is to believe. Seeing is believing. 

Nouns in -ing are sometimes called infinitives or gerunds. 

351. A noun in -ing may be used as an adjective, or as the 
adjective element in a compound noun (§ 64). 

The sleeping car was completely wrecked. 
William has plenty of spending money. 



PARTICIPIAL NOUNS 147 

Note. Other examples are : — a working day, an ironing board, drinking 
water, smelling salts, marching orders, a walking tour, a swimming race, a 
vaulting pole. In such cases it makes little difference whether the two nouns 
are taken together as a compound, or whether the first is regarded as an 
adjective modifying the second. The difference between this use and that of 
the participle is perfectly clear. A "sleeping dog" is a dog that sleeps; a 
"sleeping car" is a car for sleeping. Sometimes, indeed, either explanation 
is possible. Thus, a "hoisting engine " may be understood either as an M en- 
gine that hoists," or as an " engine for hoisting." But it is better to class these 
exceptions with the nouns in -ing. 

352. When a verbal noun in -ing is preceded by an article or any 
other adjective, it cannot take an object. 



Shooting song-birds 

*> is forbidden 



The shooting of song-birds J 

Launching a ship 1 . , , .„ 

The launching of a ship } re 4 mres care and skllL 

Drawing maps "1 . 

m , -, . - >■ is a useful exercise. 

The drawing of maps j 

Eating confectionery constantly 1 . , _ _ 

Constant eating of confectionery) 18 bad for the teeth - 

, , , . . f driving wells. 

My business is j ^ driving q/ ^^ 

Observe that, in each instance, the object (song-birds, ship, 
maps, confectionery, wells) is replaced by a prepositional phrase 
when an article or other adjective precedes the verbal noun. 

I 

Note. In such expressions as " I went a-fishing," a"is a shortened form of 
the preposition on, said fishing is a verbal noun used as its object. When a is 
omitted we have "I went fishing," "The house is building, ,, and the like, 
in which the word in -ing seems to be a participle, but is really the object of 
the omitted a (= on). 

353. The possessive case of a noun or pronoun may be used 
to limit a verbal noun in -ing. 

I was sure of its being he. [Not : it.] 

I heard of Allen's being elected. [Not : Allen.] 



148 



PKEPOSITIONS 



CHAPTER VII 



PREPOSITIONS 



354. A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its 
relation to some other word in the sentence. 

The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object and 
is in the objective case. 

A phrase consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without 
other words, is called a prepositional phrase. 

On the floor lay a heap of nuts. 

He stood behind the tree for some time. 

From morning till night he remained at his post. 

The fire destroyed everything except a few articles of furniture. 

A prepositional phrase may be either adjective or adverbial. 

Thus, in the first example, of nuts is an adjective phrase modifying the 
noun heap, and on the floor is an adverbial phrase modifying the verb 
lay. In the second sentence, the verb stood is modified by two adverbial 
phrases, behind the tree and for some time. 

355. The following list includes most of the prepositions : 



aboard 

about 

above 

according to 

across 

after 

against 

along 

along with 

amid, amidst 

among, amongst 

apart from 

around 

as for, as to 

at 

athwart 

barring 



because of 

before 

behind 

below 

beneath 

beside, besides 

between 

betwixt 

beyond 

but (= except) 

by 

by dint of 

by means of 

by reason of 

by virtue of 

by way of 

concerning 



considering 

despite 

down 

during 

ere 

except, excepting 

for 

for the sake of 

from 

from among 

from between 

from under 

in 

in accordance with 

in addition to 

in case of 

in compliance with 



PREPOSITIONS 



149 



in consequence of 

in consideration of 

m front of 

in lieu of 

in opposition to 

in place of 

in preference to 

in regard to 

in spite of 

inside (inside of) 

instead of 

into 

notwithstanding 

of 

off 



on 

on account of 

out of 

outside (outside of) 

over 

over against 



pending 
regarding 
respecting 
round 

round about 
save, saving 
since 
through 



throughout 

to, unto 

touching 

toward, towards 

under 

underneath 

until, till 

up 

upon 

with 

within 

without 

with reference to 

with regard to 

with respect to 



Note. Such expressions as by means of, in accordance with, in spite of, 
etc., are really phrases, but may be regarded as compound prepositions. 

Several participles like concerning, considering, pending, are common in a 
prepositional use and are therefore included in the list (§ 339) . 

For a (a form of on) in abed, asleep, afire, a-Jishing, etc., see § 352. 

Per is confined to the strictly commercial style except in such expressions 
as perforce, per cent, per annum (§ 179). 

356. A preposition may stand at the end of a sentence or 
clause. 

Whom did you ask for ? [Compare : For whom did you ask ?] 
The box which it came in has been destroyed. [Compare : The box in 
which it came.] 

Note. This order, though informal, is common in the best authors ; but, 
if carelessly used, it may result in awkwardness of style. Sometimes a rela- 
tive which is the object of the preposition is omitted (see § 151). Thus, in the 
second sentence, which might be dropped, and the object of in would then be 
" which, understood." For "He was laughed at," and the like, see § 251. 

In poetry a preposition sometimes follows its object directly : as, — " Bare- 
foot plod I the cold ground upon " (Shakspere) . 

357. Certain adverbial expressions like "on Sunday," "on 
March first," occur both, with and without the preposition. 

He came Sunday (or, on Sunday). 

We sail March first (or, on March first). 

Note. The forms without on are good colloquial English, but are avoided 
in the more formal style. No preposition need be supplied in parsing. The 
noun is an adverbial objective (§ 109). 



150 PREPOSITIONS 

358. Care is required in the use of pronouns as the objects of 
prepositions. 

He has been very friendly "^ 

The old house will seem lonely I to you and me. [Not : you and I.] 

That makes no difference J 

Tom's carelessness makes trouble 1 

There are letters at the post office J tor you and me ' 

T , .-...•*. * fy° u and Mm. 
I have invitations for<( V, nn -, ,_ 
l^you and her. 

He will divide the reward between you and me. 

Whom are you waiting for ? \ r v 

Whom were you speaking to ? J *- OT - w °'l 

359. Several words are used either as adverbs or prepositions. 

As Adverb As Preposition 

I fell down. I fell down the steps. 

Stand by ! He stood by the window. 

A big dog ran behind. A dog ran behind the carriage. 

Keep off! Keep off the grass. 

Other examples are : — aboard, above, after, along, before, below, be- 
neath, beside, between, beyond, ere, in, inside, on, outside, past, round, 
since, under, up, within, without. 

For words used either as prepositions or as conjunctions, see pp. 152-154. 

360. Prepositions show various distinctions in use and 
meaning which must be learned by practice and by the study 
of synonyms in a large dictionary. 

The following groups afford opportunity for such study : — at, in ; in, 
into ; between, among, amid ; on, upon ; from, off ; round, around, 
about ; to, with ; beside, besides ; agree with, agree to ; change for, 
change with ; disappoint in, of ; differ with, from ; confide in, to ; cor- 
respond with, to ; part from, with ; compare to, with ; join with, to ; 
connect with, to ; come up with, to ; talk to, with • speak to, with ; 
hang on, from, to ; live at, in, on ; argue with, against ; contend with, 
against ; depart from, for, at, on, in. 



CONJUNCTIONS 151 

CHAPTER VIII 
CONJUNCTIONS 

361. Conjunctions connect words or groups of words. 
Conjunctions are either coordinate or subordinate. 1 

1. A coordinate conjunction connects words or groups of words that 
are independent of each other. 

1. Hay and grain are sold here. 

2. Will you take tea or coffee ? 

3. He was pale but undaunted. 

4. The messenger replied courteously but firmly. 

5. The troops embarked rapidly but without confusion. 

6. Noon came, and the task was still unfinished. 

7. We must hide here until night falls and the street is deserted. 

In each of the first four sentences, the conjunction (and, or, 
but) connects single words that are in the same construction 
(subjects, objects, predicate adjectives, adverbs). In the fifth, 
but connects an adverb with an adverbial phrase (both being 
modifiers of the verb embarked). In the sixth, and joins the 
two coordinate clauses of a compound sentence (§ 44). In the 
seventh, and joins two coordinate clauses which, taken to- 
gether, make up the subordinate clause until . . . deserted ; this 
clause may therefore be called a compound subordinate clause 
(see § 454). 

2. A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause with the 
clause on which it depends. 

Harmon did not quail, though he saw the danger. 
Take this seat, if you prefer. 
I hesitated because I remembered your warning. 
Unless you reform, your career will be ruined. 

1 Coordinate conjunctions are also called coordinating, and subordinate 
conjunctions are also called subordinating. 



152 CONJUNCTIONS 

362. The chief coordinate conjunctions are : — 

and (both . . . and) moreover 

not only . . . but also therefore 

or (either ... or) then 

nor (neither . . . nor) yet 

but still 

for nevertheless 

however notwithstanding 

Several of these are much used for transition, whether from 
sentence to sentence or from one paragraph to another. 

Such are : — however, moreover, therefore, then, nevertheless, not- 
withstanding, yet, still. 

363. Then is an adverb when it denotes time, a conjunction 
when it denotes consequence or the like. 

Then the boat glided up to the pier. [Time.] 

Men are imperfect creatures : we must not, then, expect them to be 
angels. [Consequence.] 

364. Yet and still are adverbs when they express time or 
degree, conjunctions when they connect. 

We have not started yet. [Time.] 

It is still raining. [Time.] 

This hatchet is dull, but that is duller still. [Degree.] 

I miss him, yet I am glad he went. [Conjunction.] 

I like dogs ; still I do not care to own one. [Conjunction.] 

365. For and notwithstanding may be either prepositions or 
conjunctions. 

Prepositions Conjunctions 

I am waiting for you. We must go, for it is late. 

Jane is coming, notwithstanding It is a hard storm. She will come, 
the storm. notwithstanding. 

Note. For is sometimes classified as a subordinate conjunction, but the 
fact that it may be used to begin an independent sentence (even when such a 
sentence opens a paragraph) justifies its inclusion among the coordinates. 



CONJUNCTIONS 153 

366. The chief subordinate conjunctions are : — 

although, though if that 

as lest unless 

as if (as though) since (= because) whereas 

because than whether (whether ... or) 

A few phrases may be regarded as compound conjunctions. Such are : — 
in order that, so that, provided that, in case that, but that, as if, as though, 
even if. Provided, and in case (without that) may also be used as conjunc- 
tions : as, — ' f I will go provided it does n't rain." 

367. The subordinate conjunction that is often omitted when 
it may readily be supplied. 

He said [that] he was starving. 

They feared [that] they were betrayed. 

I cannot believe [that] you would try to injure me. 

Note. This omission is similar to that of the relative pronoun (§ 151) . It 
is extremely common, not only in colloquial language but also in literature, 
whether prose or verse. 

368. As and since in the sense of " because," and while in the 
sense of " though," are conjunctions. 

When denoting time, as is an adverb, while is a noun or an 
adverb, and since is an adverb or a preposition. 

As (or since) you will not listen, I will say no more. [Conjunction.] 
As we crossed the bridge, I looked down at the rushing stream. 
[Adverb.] 

Ten years have passed since my uncle went to sea. [Adverb.] 
The house has been empty since Christmas. [Preposition.] 

369. Conjunctions used in pairs are called correlative con- 
junctions. • 

The chief correlatives are : — 

both . . . and though . . . yet (still) 

not only . . . but also although . . . yet (still) 

either ... or since . . . therefore 

neither . . . nor if . . . then 



154 CONJUNCTIONS 

Examples of correlatives may be seen in the following 
sentences : — 

Both lions and wolves are carnivorous. 
The culprit looked both angry and ashamed. 
William II is not only German Emperor but also King of Prussia. 
Either brass or copper will do. 
Neither Keats nor Shelley lived to be old. 
He asked me whether I was an Austrian or a Russian. 
Though the roads were very bad, yet he managed to reach Utica before 
midnight. 

Although he has wronged me, still I cannot believe he is my enemy. 
Since four is the square of two, therefore two is the square root of four. 
If Allen's testimony is true, then Gilbert's must be false. 

370. But is used as a subordinate conjunction in the sense 
of but that or unless. 

There is no doubt but that they are murderers. — Shelley. 

Your uncle must not know but [ = but that] you are dead. — Shakspere. 

Ne'er may I look on day but [= unless] she tells your highness the 
truth. — Shakspere. [This use is obsolete.] 

There is not a wave of the Seine but is associated in my mind with the 
first rise of the sandstones and forest pines of Pontainebleau. — Ruskin. 

There was nobody but loved her. 

Note. In the last two examples the subject of the subordinate clause is 
omitted : — " There is not a wave but [it] is associated," " There was nobody 
bat [he] loved her." In such cases, but is sometimes regarded as a relative 
pronoun. 

Notwithstanding is used as a subordinate conjunction in the 
sense of though. 

I shall go, notwithstanding the road is said to be impassable. 

371. Relative adverbs are similar in^heir use to conjunctions, 
and are therefore often called conjunctive adverbs (§§ 194-195). 

Note. Most conjunctions, historically considered, are merely adverbs (or 
adverbial phrases) which have come to be used in so peculiar a way as to form 
a special class among the parts of speech. Thus the adverbs since and while 
become conjunctions when they cease to denote time ; because is a corruption 
of the phrase by cause ; but is developed from an old adverb meaning " outside." 



INTEEJECTIONS 155 

CHAPTER IX 
INTERJECTIONS 

372. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing 
surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling. 

Examples : (or oh), ah, hullo (holloa, halloo), bah, pshaw, fie, 
whew, tut-tut, st (often spelled hist), ha, aha, ha ha, ho, hey, hum, hem, 
heigh-ho (heigh-o), alas, bravo, lo. 

When written, interjections are often followed by an ex- 
clamation point (!). 

373. Among interjections are properly included calls to 
animals (like w whoa ! ") and imitations of sounds such as 
" mew ! " " cock-a-doodle-do ! " " ding dong ! " w swish ! " " tu- 
whit-tu-who ! " 

374. Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the 
phrases or sentences in which they stand. 

Hence they are counted among the " independent elements " 
of a sentence (§ 501). 

Sometimes, however, a substantive is connected with an 
interjection by means of a preposition. Thus, — 

for a camera ! 
Alas for my hopes ! 

Adjectives and adverbs are also found in this use : as, — 
w Good for you ! " « Up with it ! " 

Note. All such expressions are often regarded as elliptical sentences, as 
if " O for a camera! " stood for " O, I wish for a camera! " and " Good for 
you ! " for " That is good for you ! " But it is better to treat them as exclamatory 
pbrases. 1 Other exclamatory phrases are " Dear me ! " " Goodness gracious ! " 
: ' O my ! " and the like. 

1 Compare the exclamatory sentence (§ 3) and the exclamatory nominative 
(§88,4). 



156 INTERJECTIONS 

375. Almost any part of speech may be used as an ex- 
clamation. 

Nonsense! I do not believe it. On ! 

Fire ! Away ! 

Halt ! Back, villains ! 

Good ! I like that ! I! not a bit of it ! 

Forward ! But ! 

Such words are often called interjections, but it is better to 
describe them as nouns, adjectives, etc., used in exclamation, 
and to confine the term interjection to words which belong to 
no other part of speech. 

Note. Thus nonsense ! and fire I are nouns in the exclamatory nomina- 
tive; J/ is a pronoun in the same construction; halt! is a verb in the im- 
perative (compare hark! hush! behold! look!)] good! is an adjective; 
forward! on! away ! and back! are adverbs; but! is a conjunction. 

The following examples illustrate various exclamatory expres- 
sions, — words, phrases, and sentences : — 

1. How late I shuddered on the brink ! — Young. 

2. " Right ! right ! " a thousand tongues exclaimed. — Southey. 

3. The pale stars are gone ! — Shelley. 

4. Poor widowed wretch ! 't was there she wept in vain. — Campbell. 

5. O heartfelt raptures ! Bliss beyond compare ! — Burns. 

6. 'Tis done ! dread Winter spreads his latest glooms. — Thomson. 

7. Heigh-ho ! sing heigh-ho ! unto the green holly. — Shakspere. 

8. I had — ah ! have I now ? — a friend. — Byron. 

9. "To arms!" cried Mortimer, and couched his quivering lance. 

Gray. 

10. O for the gentleness of old Romance ! — Keats. 

11. "Run!" exclaims she, with a toss of indignant astonishment. 

Carlyle. 

12. Can he keep himself still if he would ! Oh, not he ! — Wordsworth. 



CLAUSES AS PAETS OF SPEECH 157 

CHAPTER X 
CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH 

376. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and 
tnat contains a subject and a predicate. 

A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause (§ 46). 

377. A subordinate clause may be introduced by (1) a 
relative or an interrogative pronoun, (2) a relative or an 
interrogative adverb, (3) a subordinate conjunction. 

The relative pronouns are : who, which, what, that ( = who or which), 
as (after such or same), and the compound relatives whoever, whichever, 
whatever. Their uses have already been studied (pp. 66-73). 

The chief relative adverbs are : where, whence, whither, wherever, when, 
whenever, while, before, after, till, until, since, as, how, why (p. 86). 

The interrogative pronouns are : who, which, what (§§ 163-165). 

The interrogative adverbs are : where, when, whence, whither, how, why. 

The most important subordinate conjunctions are: because, since (= be- 
cause), though, although, if, unless, that (in order that, so that), lest, as, as 
if, as though, than, whether (whether . . . or). 

378. According to their use as parts of speech, subordinate 
clauses are adjective, adverbial, or noun clauses. 

I. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 

379. A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an 
adjective clause (§ 47). 

Able men ^ 

Men of ability I can always rind employment. 

Men who show ability J 

Treeless spots *] 

Spots without trees I- were plainly visible. 

Spots where no trees grew J 

In each of these groups, a noun (men, spots) is modified 
(1) by an adjective, (2) by an adjective phrase, (3) by an 
adjective clause. The sense remains unchanged. 



158 GLAI/SES AS PAETS OF SPEECH 

380. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by relative 
pronouns, (2) by relative adverbs of place (where, whence, whither, 
etc.) or time (when, while, etc.). 

II. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 

381. A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is 
called an adverbial clause (§47). 

{thoughtlessly, 
without thinking, 
before he thought. 

( there. 
The schoolhouse stands <{ at the crossroads. 

I where the roads meet. 

r monthly. 
We pay our rent^ on the first of every month. 

I when the first of the month comes. 

In each of these groups, the verb (spoke, stands, pay) is 
modified (1) by an adverb, (2) by an adverbial phrase, (3) by 
an adverbial clause. 

382. Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by relative 
adverbs (when, where, before, etc.) ; (2) by subordinate conjunc- 
tions (if, though, because, etc.) ; (3) by relative or interrogative 
pronouns. 

383. Adverbial clauses oftenest modify verbs, but they are 
also common as modifiers of adjectives and adverbs. 

Angry because he had failed, he abandoned the undertaking. [The 
clause modifies angry.] 

I am uncertain which road I should take. [The clause modifies uncertain.] 

Farther than eye could see extended the waste of tossing waters. [The 
clause modifies farther.] 

Here, where the cliff was steepest, a low wall protected the path. [The 
clause modifies here.] 

384. An adverbial clause with that may be used to modify 
verbs and adjectives. 



NOUN CLAUSES 159 

He rejoiced that the victory was won. 

I am glad that you are coming. 

He was positive that no harm had been done. 

They were unwilling that the case should be brought to trial. 

Note. In this use that is equivalent either to " because " or to " as to the 
fact that." The clause may be explained as a noun clause in the adverbial 
objective construction (§ 109) . 

For the classification of adverbial clauses according to their 
meaning (place, time, cause, concession, etc.), see pp. 163-182. 



III. NOUN (OR SUBSTANTIVE) CLAUSES 

385. A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun 
(or substantive) clause (§ 47). 

Agreement ""] 

To agree I seemed impossible. 

That we should agree J 

Victory *] 

To win S was out of the question. 

That we should win J 

f loss. 
The merchant feared -4 to lose. 

L that he might lose money, 
r success. 
I expect-! to succeed. 

L that I shall succeed. 

In each of these groups a noun (agreement, victory, etc.) is 
replaced (1) by an infinitive, (2) by a noun clause. In the 
first two examples, the noun clause is the subject ; in the last 
two, it is the object of a verb (feared, expect). 

386. Noun clauses may be used in any of the more impor- 
tant constructions of nouns : — (1) as subject, (2) as direct object 
of a transitive verb, (3) in apposition with a substantive, (4) as 
a predicate nominative. 

That Milton was spared has often caused surprise. [Subject.] 
Brutus said that Ccesar was a tyrant. [Object of said.] 



160 CLAUSES AS PAETS OF SPEECH 

Caesar commanded that the prisoners should be spared, [Object.] 
I wish that you would work harder. [Object.] 
The traveller inquired where he could find the inn. [Object.] 
He asked me what my name was. - [Second object of asked.] 
My fear that the bridge might fall proved groundless. [Apposition with 
fear.] 

One fact is undoubted, — that the state of America has been kept in con- 
tinual agitation. — Burke. [Apposition with fact.] 

The old saying is that misery loves company. [Predicate nominative.] 

387. Noun clauses may be introduced (1) by the subordinate 
conjunctions that, whether (whether . . . or), and if (in the 
sense of whether ) ; (2) by the interrogative pronouns who, 
which, what ; (3) by the interrogative adverbs where, whence, 
whither, how, why, when (§ 196). 

388. Noun clauses are common as objects of verbs (1} of 
commanding, desiring, etc. ; (2) of telling, thinking, etc. ; (3) 
of asking, doubting , etc. 

See (1) clauses of purpose (§ 406) ; (2) indirect, discourse (§§ 431-437) ; (3) 
indirect questions (§ 443) . 

Object clauses frequently omit that (§ 367). 

Charles said [that] he was sorry. 
I hope you will come. 
I wish he would help me. 

For the infinitive clause replacing a t hat-clause as object, 
see §§324-325. 

389. A noun clause may be used as the retained object of a 
passive verb (§ 253). 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

(Clause as Object) (Retained Object) 

They informed me that the train I was informed that the train was 

was late. late. 

Charles told us that the ice was thin. We were told that the ice was thin. 

They asked me whether (or if) I I was asked whether I liked tennis. 

liked tennis. 



NOUN CLAUSES 161 

390. A noun clause may be the object of a preposition. 

I see no reason for a lawsuit except that both parties are stubborn. 
[Compare : except the stubbornness of both.] 

She never studies, except when she can find nothing else to do. 

I could say nothing but [= except] that I was sorry. 

Justice was well administered in his time, save where the king was 
party. — Bacon. 

She could see me from where she stood. 

There is a dispute as to which of the miners first staked out the claim. 

For a noun clause used as an adverbial objective, see § 384. 

391. Noun clauses with, that are common in the predicate 
when the expletive it is the grammatical subject (§ 120, 2). 

It was plain that war was at hand. 

It was clear that this administration would last but a very short time. 
It must be admitted that there were many extenuating circumstances. 
It was by slow degrees that Fox became a brilliant and powerful debater. 
It was under the command of a foreign general that the British had 
triumphed at Minden. 

In such sentences the real subject of the thought is the 
clause. This, however, may be regarded as grammatically in 
apposition with it, as if one said w It (that war was at hand) 
was plain." 

Note. This useful idiom enables us to adopt a kind of inverted order 
(§5), and thus to shift the emphasis. Contrast " That war was at hand was 
plain" with " It was plain that war was at hand." In the former sentence, 
the noun clause is made prominent; in the latter, the adjective plain. 

392. The following sentences, taken from distinguished 
authors of different periods, illustrate the usefulness of the 
noun clause in its various constructions. 

1. That the king would ever again have received Becket into favor is 
not to be believed. — Southey. 

2. That in education we should proceed from the simple to the complex 
is a truth which has always been to some extent acted on. — Spencer. 

3. How great his reputation was, is proved by the embassies sent to 
him. — Coleridge. 

4. It vexed old Hawkins that his counsel was not followed. — Fuller, 



162 CLAUSES AS PAETS OF SPEECH 

5. It became necessary, at last, that I should arouse both master and 
valet to the expediency of removing the treasure. — Poe. 

6. There is no doubt that breeds may be made as different as species 
in many physiological characteristics. — Huxley. 

7. The main definition you could give of old Marquis Mirabeau is, 
that he was of the pedant species. — Carlyle. 

8. The fact seems to be that we have survived the tremendous 
explosion. — Brougham. 

9. The question is, whether the feigned image of poesy, or the regular 
instruction of philosophy, have the more force in teaching. — Sidney. 

10. I feared that some serious disaster had befallen my friend. — Poe. 

11. I think with you that the most magnificent object under heaven 
is the great deep. — Cowper. 

12. Aureolus soon discovered that the success of his artifices had only 
raised up a more determined adversary. — Gibbon. 

13. Harold alleged that he was appointed by Edward. — Temple. 

14. That we shall die, we know. — Shakspere. 

15. Her Majesty has promised that the treaty shall be laid before her 
Parliament. — Swift. 

16. Deerslayer proposed that they should circle the point in the canoe. 

Cooper. 

17. I remembered how soft was the hand of Sleep. — Landor. 

18. I cannot see what objection can justly be made to the practice. 

Reynolds. 

19. No man knew what was to be expected from this strange tribunal. 

Macaulay. 

20. We may imagine with what sensations the stupefied Spaniards 
must have gazed on this horrid spectacle. — Prescott. 

21. Observe how graciously Nature instructs her human children. 

Coleridge. 

22. My friend asked me if there would not be some danger in coming 
home late. — Addison. 

23. A message came that the committee was sitting at Kensington 
Palace. — Thackeray. 

24. Jeffreys had obtained of the king a promise that he would not 
pardon her. — Burnet. 

25. The present age seems pretty well agreed in an opinion that the 
utmost scope and end of reading is amusement only. — Fielding. 

26. He suddenly alarmed me by a startling question — whether I had 
seen the show of prize cattle that morning in Smithfield. — Lamb. 

27. I am told that the Lancashire system is perfect. — Kingsley. 



CLAUSES OF PLACE AND TIME 163 

CHAPTER XI 
THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 

393. Subordinate clauses may be classified not only accord- 
ing to their use as parts of speech, but also, in quite a different 
way, in accordance with their various meanings. These distinc- 
tions in idea are of capital importance for the accurate and 
forcible expression of thought. 

394. The variety of meanings which subordinate clauses 
may express is great, but most of these meanings come under 
the following heads : — (1) place or time, (2) cause, (3) conces- 
sion, (4) purpose, (5) result, (6) condition, (7) comparison, 1 (8) in- 
direct discourse, (9) indirect question. 

The general meaning of the clause is usually indicated by 
the word which introduces it. 

I. CLAUSES OF PLACE AND TIME 

395. An adjective or an adverbial clause may express place or time. 

I. Adjective Clauses 

The house where the robbery occurred is No. 14. 

The bridge over which we rode is in ruins. 

There is a point beyond which you cannot go. 

The day when (or on which) I was to sail arrived at last. 

The day before you came was rainy. 

His terror while it thundered was pitiable. 

II. Adverbial Clauses 

Remain where I can see you. 

That belongs where you found it. 

Whithersoever I go, fear dogs my steps. 

Whenever the bell rings, you must take down the receiver. 

Esmond heard the chimes as he sat in his own chamber. 

I have lived in Cairo since my father died. 

1 Including clauses of manner and degree (§§ 428-429). 



164 MEANINGS OF SUBOBDINATE CLAUSES 

396. Adjective clauses of place and time may be introduced 
by relative pronouns (see examples above). 

Adjective and adverbial clauses of place and time may be 
introduced by relative adverbs. Thus, — 

Place : where, whence, whither, wherever, whithersoever, wheref rom, 
whereto, etc. 

Time : when, whenever, while, as, before, after, until, since. 

For as and since in causal clauses, see §398; for while in concessive 
clauses, see § 399. 

397. Clauses of time are sometimes shortened by the omis- 
sion of the copula and its subject. 

When [he was] rescued, he was almost dead. 

Tom was attacked by cramp while swimming across the river. 



II. CAUSAL CLAUSES 

398. An adverbial clause may express cause. 

Causal clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions 
because, since, as, inasmuch as, and sometimes that. 

I came home because I was tired. 

As the day was clear, we decided to climb the mountain. 

Since you will not relent, you must take the consequences. 

We were glad that the wreck was no worse. 

Tom was delighted that his friend was safe. 

Since is a preposition or an adverb when it denotes time; as is an adverb 
when it denotes time. Both since and as are conjunctions when they express 
cause. For as used as a relative pronoun, see § 147. 

in. CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 

399. An adverbial clause may express concession. 

A concessive clause is usually introduced by a subordinate 
conjunction, though, although, or even if. It admits (or con- 
cedes) some fact or supposition in spite of which the assertion 
in the main clause is made. 



CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 165 

Although I do not like his manners, I respect his character. 
We won the game, though we expected to lose. 
Even if you fail, you will have gained experience. 
Even if you were a king, you would find somebody or something more 
powerful than yourself. 

Though he should read books forever, he would not grow wise. 

Note. While is often used as a weaker or more courteous synonym for 
although. 

The main clause, when it follows the concessive clause, may 
be emphasized by means of yet, still, nevertheless. 

Although the task was heavy, yet his courage never failed. [Although 
and yet are correlative conjunctions (§ 369).] 

Though his reputation was great at home, yet it was greater abroad. 

Concessive clauses sometimes omit the copula and its subject. 

Though [he was] tired, he was not disheartened. 

This punishment, though perhaps necessary, seems rather severe. 

400. For the distinction between the indicative and the 
subjunctive in concessive clauses, see § 279 ; for that between 
should and would, see § 305. 

401. A concessive clause may be introduced by the con- 
junction as, or by a relative pronoun or a relative adverb. 

Whatever you say, -\ 

Whichever argument you present, I he will carry his point. 

However much you object, J 

Weak as I am, I will make the effort. 

Gay as the scene was, 'twas but a dreary place for Mr. Esmond. 

Note. The adverbial use of however is quite distinct from its use as a 
coordinate conjunction (§362). 

402. Concession is sometimes expressed by a subjunctive 
clause without a conjunction to introduce it (§ 281). 

Be it ever so humble, there 's no place like home. 
I will help you, cost what it may ! 



166 MEANINGS OF SUBOKDHSTATE CLAUSES 

IV-V. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE AND OF RESULT 

403. A subordinate clause may express purpose or result. 

I. Clauses of Purpose 

These men died that we might live, 

I will take care that you are not harmed. 

John worked day and night that the plans might be ready in time. 

We threw our ballast overboard, so that the airship might clear the 
treetops. 

All our arrangements have been made with the utmost precision, in 
order that the ship may be launched promptly and without accident. 

II. Clauses of Result 

He has recovered his strength, so that he can now work. 

The town stood at the foot of the volcano, so that every building was 
destroyed. 

Quentin started so suddenly that he almost dropped his weapon. 

His rancor against the duke was so apparent that one saw it in the first 
half-hour 1 s conversation. 

Their minds were so much embittered that they imputed to each other 
nothing less than deliberate villany. 

You make such a noise that I cannot hear the music. 

404. Clauses of purpose may be introduced by the subordinate 
conjunction that or by a phrase containing it (so that, in order 
that, to the end that, etc.). 

Negative clauses of purpose may be introduced by that . . . 
•not or by lest. For lest with the subjunctive, see § 284. 

Take heed lest thou fall. 

I feared lest I might anger thee. — Shakspere. 

405. Clauses of result may be introduced by the phrase so 
that, consisting of the adverb so and the subordinate conjunc- 
tion that ; or by that alone, especially when so, such, or some 
similar word stands in the main clause. 

406. A clause of purpose or of result may be either an 
adverbial clause (as in § 403) or a substantive clause. 



CLAUSES OF PURPOSE AKD OP RESULT 167 

I intend that you shall be elected. [Object.] 

My intention is that you shall be appointed. [Predicate nominative.] 

The result is that he is bankrupt. [Predicate nominative.] 

His exertions had this effect, that the vote was unanimous. [Appositive.] 

407. A substantive clause of purpose is often used as the 
object of a verb of commanding, desiring, or the like. 

The general ordered that the fort should be blown up. 
The prisoner begged that his fetters might be struck off. 

408. Por subordinate clauses with shall or should, implying 
purpose or expectation, see § 304. 

409. Purpose may be expressed by the infinitive with to or 
in order to, and result by the infinitive with to or as to. 

He abandoned his profession to [or in order to] become a missionary. 
[Purpose.] 

He was kind enough to help me. [Kesult. Compare : He was so kind 
that he helped me.] 

He was so kind as to help me. [Result.] 

Negative result is often expressed by the adverb too and the 
infinitive. 

Iron is too heavy to float. [Compare : Iron is so heavy that it does not 
float.] 

410. Purpose may be expressed by an infinitive clause (§ 325). 

The teacher intended us to finish the book. [Compare : The teacher 
intended that we should finish the book.] 

The foreman ordered the engine to be stopped. [Compare : The fore- 
man ordered that the engine should be stopped.] 



VI. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 

411. A clause that expresses a condition introduced by if, or by some 
equivalent word or phrase, is called a conditional clause. 

A sentence that contains a conditional clause is called a conditional 
sentence. 

If it rains, we shall remain at home. 

I shall attend the convention if I am in town. 

I will take this book, if you please. 



168 MEANINGS OF SUBOBDINATE CLAUSES 

412. A conditional sentence in its- simplest form consists of 
two parts : — 

(1) A subordinate (adverbial) clause, commonly introduced 
by if and expressing the condition. 

(2) A main clause expressing the conclusion, that is, the 
statement which is true in case the condition expressed in the 
if-clause is true. 

Thus in the first example in § 411, the condition is if it rains ; the con- 
clusion is we shall remain at home. 

Either the condition or the conclusion may come first. 

The conditional clause is often called the protasis, and the conclusion is 
often called the apodosis. 

The conclusion of a conditional sentence may be declarative, 
interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. 

If you go to Philadelphia, where shall you stay ? [Interrogative.] 

Sit here, if you wish. [Imperative.] 

If you win the prize, how glad I shall be ! [Exclamatory.] 

413. A conditional clause may be introduced by provided 
(or provided that), granted that, supposing (or suppose), on 
condition that. 

I will permit you to go, on condition that you come home early. 
You may have the money, provided you will put it in the bank. 
Supposing (or suppose) it rains, what shall we do ? 

Suppose is really an imperative and supposing a participle, the clause being 
the object. 

414. A negative condition is commonly introduced by if . . . 

not or unless. 

I will wait for him, if you do not object. 

Unless you overcome that habit, you will be ruined. 

415. Double (or alternative) conditions may be introduced by 
whether . . . or. 

Whether he goes or stays, he must pay a week's board. [Compare : If 
he goes or if he stays, etc.] 

He is determined to buy that car, whether you approve or not. [That 
is : if you approve or if you do not approve.] 



CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 169 

416. A conditional clause may be introduced by whoever, 
whenever, or some similar compound (§§ 159, 195). 

Whoever offends, is punished. [Compare : If anybody offends, he is 
punished.] 

Whoever shall offend, shall be punished. 

Whomever you ask, you will be disappointed. [Compare : If you shall 
ask anybody.] 

He will come whenever [= if ever] he is called. 

Note. In older English and in poetry, who is common in this construction : 
as, — " Who [= tohoever] steals my purse, steals trash" (Shakspere). 

417. A conditional clause sometimes omits the copula and 
its subject. 

I will go if [it is] necessary. 

If [it is] possible, come to-morrow. 

The £y*-clause is sometimes used as an exclamation, with the 
conclusion omitted. 

If I only had a rifle ! 

418. A condition may be expressed by means of an assertion, 
a question, an imperative, or the absolute construction (§ 345). 

We take the receiver from the hook, and the operator answers. We 
replace it, and the connection is broken. [Compare : If we take the 
receiver from the hook, the operator answers, etc.] 

Press that button, and the bell will ring. 

Do you refuse ? Then you must take the consequences. 

We shall sail on Monday, weather permitting. 

Note. In such cases, there is no subordinate conditional clause. Thus, in 
the first example, we have two independent coordinate clauses, making a 
compound sentence (§ 44) . 

FORMS OF CONDITIONS 

419. Conditional sentences show great variety of form, but 
it is easy to classify them according to the time of the supposed 
case and the degree of doubt that the speaker expresses. 

420. Conditions may be present, past, or future. 



170 MEANINGS OF SUBOKDESTATE CLAUSES 

Present and Past Conditions 

421. Present and past conditions may be either (1) non- 
committal or (2) contrary to fact. 

1. A condition is non-committal when it implies nothing as 
to the truth or falsity of the case supposed. 

If James is angry, I am sorry. [Perhaps James is angry, perhaps not.] 

2. A condition is contrary to fact when it implies that the 
supposed case is not or was not true. 

If James were angry, I should be sorry. [James is not angry.] 

422. In a non-committal present condition, the if -cl&use * takes 
the present indicative ; in a non-committal past condition, the 
past, the perfect, or the pluperfect. 

The conclusion may be in any form that the sense allows. 

I. Present Condition, Non-committal 

" it is valuable, 
guard it carefully, 
you have made a great discovery, 
you will get a large sum for it. 
why are you so careless of it ? 
^ what a prize it is ! 
If it is raining, shut the window. 

r he is a lucky boy. 
If Jack lives in this house, i ring the bell. 

the has moved since last May. 

II. Past Condition, Non-committal 

( it was valuable. 
If that pebble was a diamond, i why did you throw it away ? 
I go back and look for it. 
( he has done his duty. 
If Tom has apologized, \ you ought to excuse him. 
I. forgive him. 

If John had reached home before we started, he must have made a 
quick journey. 

1 By " ^-clause " is meant the protasis, whatever the conjunction. 



If this pebble is a diamond, < 



CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 171 

In each of these examples, the speaker declines to commit 
himself as to the truth of the supposed case. Perhaps the 
pebble was a diamond, perhaps not; Tom may or may not 
have apologized ; whether or not John had reached home, we 
cannot tell. 

423. In a condition contrary to fact, the ^/-clause takes the 
past subjunctive when the condition refers to present time, 
the pluperfect subjunctive when it refers to past time. 

The conclusion regularly takes should or would (§ 286, 3). 

If John were here, I should recognize him. [Present condition, present 
conclusion.] 

If John were here, I should have recognized him before this. [Present 
condition, past conclusion.] 

If I had offended him, I should have regretted it. [Past condition, past 
conclusion.] 

If I had then offended him, I should regret it now. [Past condition, 
present conclusion.] 

In each of these sentences, the speaker distinctly implies 
that the supposed case (or condition) is (or was) not a fact. 
It follows, of course, that the conclusion is not a fact : — John 
is not here ; therefore I do not recognize him. 

424. In conditions contrary to fact, the subjunctive without 
if is common. In this use, the subject follows the verb (§ 281). 

Were he my friend, I should expect his help. [= If he were my friend. 
Present condition, contrary to fact.] 

Had he been my friend, I should have expected his help. [= If he 
had been my friend. Past condition, contrary to fact.] 

Note. In older English, the subjunctive may be used in both clauses : as, — 
"He were no lion, were not Romans hinds" (Shakspere). 

Future Conditions 

425. Future conditions always imply doubt, for no one can tell 
what may or may not happen to-morrow. 

426. In all future conditions, some verb-form denoting 
future time is used in both clauses. 



172 MEANINGS OF SUBOEDINATE CLAUSES 

1. In a future condition which suggests nothing as to the 
probability or improbability of the case supposed, the present 
indicative is regularly used in the ^-clause, and the future 
indicative in the conclusion. 

If it rains to-morrow, I shall not go. 

In very formal or exact language a verb-phrase with shall may be used in 
the z/-clause : as, — " If it shall rain to-morrow, I shall not go." 

2. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in the if 
clause. This form commonly suggests more doubt than the 
present indicative. 

If it rain to-morrow, I shall not go. 

3. In a future condition which puts the supposed case rather 
vaguely, often with a considerable suggestion of doubt, a verb- 
phrase with should or would is used in both clauses. 

If it should rain to-morrow, I should not go. 

For the use of should or would in such clauses, see § 305. 
A phrase with were to may replace the should-iphmse in the 
i/'-clause. This form often emphasizes the suggestion of doubt. 

If it were to rain to-morrow, I should not go. 

The past subjunctive may stand in the ^y > -clause instead of 
the should-iphmse. 

If it rained to-morrow, I should not go. 

Note. The comparative amount of doubt implied in the different kinds of 
future conditions cannot be defined with precision ; for it varies with the cir- 
cumstances or the context, and often depends on emphasis or the tone of the 
voice. Thus, in "if it should rain to-morrow," should may be so emphasized 
as to make the supposed case seem highly improbable, whereas an emphasis 
on to-morrow would have a very different effect. As to the subjunctive, its 
use is often due rather to the writer's liking for that mood than to any special 
doubt in his mind. 

427. For even if in concessive clauses, see § 399 ; for as If 
in clauses of comparison, see § 428 ; for if (in the sense of 
whether) in indirect questions, see § 442. 



CLAUSES OF COMPAEISON 173 

VII. CLAUSES OF COMPAKISON 

428. An adverbial clause introduced by as if may express com- 
parison. 1 

You speak as if you were angry. 2 

He breathes as if he were exhausted. 

She cared for me as if I had been her son. 

As though is also used, but as if is now preferred by most writers. 

The subjunctive were, not the indicative was, is used after 
as if (§ 282). 

429. As and than, as subordinate conjunctions, introduce 
clauses of comparison or degree. 

You are as old as he [is], 
I am younger than you [are] , 
He weighs as much as I [weigh] , 
I pity you more than [I pity] her. 

When the verb is omitted, the substantive that follows as 
or than is in the same case in which it would stand if the 
verb were expressed. Thus, — 

You are stronger than he. [Not : than him.] 

I see you of tener than him. [Not : than he.] 

He plays a better game than I. [Not : than me.] 

They will miss John more than me. [That is : more than they miss me.] 



VIII. INDIKECT DISCOUKSE 

430. A quotation may be direct or indirect. 
A direct quotation repeats a speech or thought in its original 
form. 

I replied : "lam sorry to hear it." 

" Henceforth," he explained, "I shall call on Tuesdays." 

" You must see California," she insisted. 

1 Clauses introduced by as are often called clauses of manner. 

i Such sentences are elliptical in origin. Thus, " The man acts as if he were 
crazy " is equivalent to "The man acts as [he would act] if he were crazy." 
But it is not necessary to supply the eUipsis in analyzing. 



174 MEANINGS OF SUBOKDINATE CLAUSES 

"Elizabeth no longer lives here," he said. 

"I know nothing about it," was the witness's reply. 

" Where," thought I, " are the crew ? " * 

An indirect quotation repeats a speech or thought in substance, 
but usually with some change in its form. 

An indirect quotation, when a statement, is a subordinate 
clause dependent on some word of saying or thinking, and 
introduced by the conjunction that. 

I replied that I was sorry to hear it. [Direct : I am sorry.] 
He explained that henceforth he should call on Tuesdays. 
She insisted that I must see California. 

A direct quotation begins with a capital letter, unless it is a frag- 
ment of a sentence. It is enclosed in quotation marks. 

An indirect quotation begins with a small letter. It usually has 
no quotation marks. 

431. A substantive clause introduced by that may be used with verbs 
and other expressions of telling, thinking, knowing, and perceiving, to report 
the words or thought of a person in substance, but usually with some 
change of form. 

Such clauses are said to be in the indirect discourse. 

For distinction, a remark or a thought in its original form (as in a direct 
quotation) is said to be in the direct discourse. 

432. Statements in indirect discourse, being substantive 
clauses, may be used in various noun constructions : (1) as 
object of some verb of telling, thinking, or the like, (2) as sub- 
ject, (3) as predicate nominative, (4) as appositive. 

He said that the box was empty. [Object.] 
That the box was empty was all he could say. [Subject.] 
My remark was that the bill is a menace. [Predicate nominative.] 
Your remark, that the bill is a menace, has aroused vigorous protest. 
[Apposition.] 

1 In analyzing, the direct quotation may be regarded as the object of the 
verb of saying, etc. (or the subject, if that verb is passive) ; and if it forms 
a complete sentence, this may be analyzed as if it stood by itself. It is not 
proper to regard the direct quotation as a subordinate clause. 



Indirect: John«{ , -, . , f that he was tired. 



INDIRECT DISCOURSE 175 

433. The conjunction that is often omitted. 

Jack said [that] he was sorry. 

I hope [that] you can come. 

I know he is too busy a man to have leisure for me. — Cowper. 

434. In indirect discourse, after the past or the pluperfect 
tense, the present tense of the direct discourse becomes past, 
and the perfect becomes pluperfect. 

1. Direct : I am tired. 
J said 1 

1 \ had said J 1 

2. Direct : I have won. 

Indirect: John^ , -, . -, fthat he had won. 

But a general or universal truth always remains in the 
present tense. 

Direct : Air is a gas. 

Indirect : I told him that air is a gas. 

Indirect : I had told him a hundred times that air is a gas. 

435. The clause with that in indirect discourse is sometimes 
replaced by an infinitive clause (§ 325). 

The jury declared him to be innocent. [Compare : The jury declared 
that he was innocent.] 

Morton admitted them to be counterfeit. [Compare : Morton admitted 
that they were counterfeit.] 

In these sentences, him and them are, of course, the subjects of the infini- 
tives, not the objects of declared and admitted. 

436. When the verb of telling or thinking is in the passive 
voice, three constructions occur : — 

1. A clause with that is used as the subject of the passive 

verb. 

That Rogers desires the office is commonly reported. 

2. The expletive it is used as the grammatical subject, and 
a tfAatf-clause follows the passive verb. 

It is commonly reported that Rogers desires the office. 



176 MEANINGS OF SUBOKDINATE CLAUSES 

3. The subject of the that-cl&use becomes the subject of the 
passive verb, and the verb of the clause is replaced by an 
infinitive. 

Kogers is commonly reported to desire the office. 

The choice among these three idioms is largely a matter of 
emphasis or euphony. The first may easily become heavy or 
awkward, and it is therefore less common than either of the 
others. 

Note. The third of these idioms is often called the personal construction, 
to distinguish it from the second, in which the grammatical subject is the im- 
personal it (§ 120, 1) . The infinitive in this third idiom may be regarded as a 
peculiar adverbial modifier of the passive verb. 

Further examples of the three constructions with passive 
verbs of telling, thinking, etc., are the following: — 

That in vivacity, humor, and eloquence, the Irish stand high among 
the nations of the world is now universally acknowledged. — Macatjlay. 

It is admitted that the exercise of the imagination is most delightful. 

Shelley. 

It must be owned that Charles's life has points of some originality. 

Stevenson. 

Porto Bello is still said to be impregnable, and it is reported the Dutch 
have declared war against us. — Gray. 

He was generally believed to have been a pirate. — Lytton. 

Pope may be said to write always with his reputation in his head. 

Johnson. 

She was observed to flutter her fan with such vehement rapidity that 
the elaborate delicacy of its workmanship gave way. — Hawthorne. 

This is said to be the only chateau in France in which the ancient 
furniture of its original age is preserved. — Longfellow. 

437. A substantive clause with that is common after it seems, 
it is true, it is evident, and similar expressions. 

It seems that Robert has lost all his money. 

It is true that genius does not always bring happiness with it. 

It is evident that Andrews tells the truth. 

This construction is really the same as that in § 436, 2. 



INDIEECT DISCOURSE 177 

438. The uses of shall and will, should and would, in in- 
direct discourse are the same as in the direct, 1 with the following 
exception : — 

When the first person with shall or should in direct discourse becomes 
the second or third person in the indirect, shall or should is retained. 

Direct : You say, " I shall die." 
Indirect : You say that you shall die. 

Direct : You said, " I shall die." 
Indirect : You said that you should die. 

Direct : He says, " I shall die." 
Indirect : He says that he shall die. 

Direct : He said, " I shall die." 
Indirect : He said that he should die. 

The reason for the retention of shall or should is that, in 
such cases, the second or third person of the indirect discourse 
represents the first person of the direct. 

The change from shall (after says) to should (after said) is 
a mere change of tense, according to the rule in § 434. 

Note. The general principle is, to retain in the indirect discourse the auxs 
iliary of the direct, simply changing the tense if necessary (§ 434). This prin- 
ciple of course covers the use of you or he shall or should to represent 1 
shall or should. There is, however, one important exception to the general 
principle : when its application would result in the use of I will or i" would to 
express mere futurity, I shall or I should is employed. Thus, John says to 
Charles, "If you fall overboard, you will drown; but Charles, reporting this, 
must say, "John tells me that, if I fall overboard, I shall [not will] drown." 
The general rule, then, may be stated as follows: The indirect discourse re- 
tains the auxiliary of the direct (with a change in tense, if necessary), unless 
such retention makes will or would express simple futurity in the first person, — 
in that case, shall or should is used. 

439. The following sentences illustrate the correct use of 
shall and will, should and would, in the indirect discourse : — 

1. He writes me that he believes he shall be at Eton till the middle 
of November. — Gray. [Direct : I shall be at Eton.] 

i See pp. 102-105, 127-132. 



178 MEANINGS OF SUBOBDHSTATE CLAUSES 

2. He that would pass the latter part of his life with honor and 
decency, must, while he is young, consider that he shall one day be old. 

— Johnson. [Direct : I shall one day be old.] 

3. Could he but reduce the Aztec capital, he felt that he should be 
safe. — Prescott. [Direct : I shall be safe.] 

4. Plantagenet took it into his head that he should like to learn to play 
at bowls. — Disraeli. [Direct : I should like.] 

5. He answered that he should be very proud of hoisting his flag 
under Sir John's command. — Southey. [Direct : I shall (or should) 
be, etc.] 

6. He knew that if he applied himself in earnest to the work of 
reformation, he should raise every bad passion in arms against him. 

— Macaulay. [Direct : If I apply myself . . ., I shall raise, etc.] 

7. He was pleased to say that he should like to have the author in 
his service. — Carlyle. [Direct : I should like.] 

8. Mr. Tristram at last declared that he was overcome with fatigue, 
and should be happy to sit down. — Henry James. [Direct : I should 
be happy.] 

9. She vowed that unless he made a great match, she should never 
die easy. — Thackeray. [Direct : Unless you make a great match, I 
shall never die easy.] 

10. You think now I shall get into a scrape at home. You think I 
shall scream and plunge and spoil everything. — George Eliot. [Direct : 
She will get into a scrape, etc.] 

11. You in a manner impose upon them the necessity of being silent, 
by declaring that you will be so yourself. — Cowper. [Determination : I 
will be silent.] 

12. He [Swift] tells them that he will run away and leave them, if 
they do not instantly make a provision for him. — Jeffrey. [Threat : I 
will run away.] 

13. The king declared that he would not reprieve her for one day. 

— Mackintosh. [Direct: I will not.] 

14. Horace declares that he would not for all the world get into a boat 
with a man who had divulged the Eleusinian mysteries. — Cowper. 
[Direct : I would not.] 

15. I called up Sirboko, and told him, if he would liberate this one 
man to please me, he should be no loser. — Speke. [Direct : If you will 
liberate, etc., you shall be no loser.] 

16. We concluded that, if we did not come at some water in ten days' 
time, we would return. — De Foe. [Direct : If we do not, etc., we will 
return.] 

17. With a theatrical gesture and the remark that I should see, he 
opened some cages and released half a dozen cats. — W. J. Locke. 
[Direct : You shall see.] 



INDIEECT QUESTIONS 179 

IX. INDIKECT QUESTIONS 

440. A question expressed in the form actually used in asking it is 
called a direct question. 

What is your name ? 

" What is your name ? " he asked. 

The direct form may be retained when the question is quoted 
or reported, as in the second example above. Often, however, 
a question is quoted or reported, not in the direct form, but in 
the form of a subordinate clause : as, — 

He asked what my name was. 
Such a clause is called an indirect question. 

441. An indirect question expresses the substance of a direct ques- 
tion in the form of a subordinate clause. 

Indirect questions depend on verbs or other expressions of asking, 
doubting, thinking, perceiving, and the like. 

Franklin asked where the difficulty lay. [Direct question : " Where 
does the difficulty lie ? "] 

The sergeant wondered how he should escape. [Direct question : f f How 
shall I escape ? "] 

I have not decided which train I shall take. [Direct question : f f Which 
train shall I take?"] 

442. Both direct and indirect questions may be introduced (1) 
by the interrogative pronouns who, which, what ; (2) by the 
interrogative adverbs when, where, whence, whither, how, why. 

Indirect questions may be introduced by the subordinate con- 
junctions whether (whether . . . or) and if. 

The use of tenses in indirect questions is the same as in the 
indirect discourse (§ 434). 

The constable inquired whether (or if) I lived in Casterbridge. [His 
question was : Do you live in Casterbridge ?] 

Your father wishes to know if you have been playing truant. [Direct 
question : Have you been playing truant ?] 

I considered whether I should apply to Kent or to Arnold. [Direct 
question : Shall I apply to Kent or to Arnold ?] 



180 MEANINGS OF SUBOKDINATE CLAUSES 

443. Indirect questions are usually noun clauses. They may 
be used in various noun constructions : (1) as object of some verb 
of asking or the like, (2) as subject, (3) as predicate nominative, 
(4) as appositive, (5) as object of a preposition. 

The skipper asked what had become of the cook. [Object.] 

He was asked what his profession was. [Retained object after the 

passive (§§ 253, 389).] 

How we could escape was a difficult question. [Subject.] 

The problem was how they should find food. [Predicate nominative.] 

The question who was to blame has never been settled. [Apposition 

with question.'] 

They all felt great perplexity as to what they should do. [Object of a 

preposition.] 

An indirect question may be an adverbial clause. 

They were uncertain what course they should take. [The clause modifies 
uncertain.] 

Edmund was in doubt where he should spend the night. [The clause 
modifies the adjective phrase in doubt.] 

444. Since the pronouns who, which, and what may be either 
interrogative or relative, an indirect question may closely re- 
semble a relative clause. These two constructions, however, 
are sharply distinguished. A relative clause always asserts some- 
thing. An indirect question, on the contrary, has an interrogative 
sense which may be seen by turning the question into the direct 
form. 

The sailor who saved the child is a Portuguese. [The clause who saved 
the child is a relative clause, for it makes a distinct assertion about the 
sailor, — namely, that he saved the child. Who is a relative pronoun 
and sailor is its antecedent.] 

I asked "] 

I do not know 

It is still a question \ who saved the chm - 

It is doubtful j 

[Here the clause who saved the child makes no assertion. On the con- 
trary, it expresses a question which may easily be pat in a direct form 
with an interrogation point : f f Who saved the child ? " Who is an inter- 
rogative pronoun. It has no antecedent.] 



INDIRECT QUESTIONS 181 

The following examples further illustrate the difference be- 
tween these two constructions : — 

1. I foresee the course which he will take. [Relative clause.] 
I foresee which course he will take. [Indirect question.] 

2. I heard what he said. [Relative clause. What = "that which."] 
I wondered what lie said. [Indirect question. What is an interroga- 
tive pronoun.] 

3. This is the man who brought the news. [Relative clause.] 
The king asked who brought the news. [Indirect question.] 

4. Here is a paper which you must sign. [Relative clause.] 

The clerk will tell you which paper you must sign. [Indirect question.] 

Note. In such a sentence as "Tom knows who saved the child," the in- 
direct question may at first appear to be a relative clause with an omitted 
antecedent {the man, or the person). If, however, we insert such an antece- 
dent ("Tom knows the man who saved the child"), the meaning is com- 
pletely changed. In the original sentence, it is stated that Tom knows the 
answer to the question, " Who saved the child ?" In the new form of the sen- 
tence, it is stated that Tom is acquainted wjth a certain person, and to this is 
added an assertion about this person in the form of a relative clause. 

445. An indirect question is sometimes expressed by means 
of an interrogative pronoun or adverb followed by an infinitive. 

Whom to choose is a serious question. [Direct question : Whom shall 
we choose ?] 

John asked what to do. [John's question was : What shall I do ?] 

I know where to go. [Direct question : Where shall I go ?] 

Tell me when to strike the bell. 

I was at a loss how to reply. 

I am in doubt how to begin this essay. 

In the first four examples the italicized phrase is used as a 
noun (either as subject or object). In the fifth, the phrase how 
to reply is adverbial, modifying the adjective phrase at a loss. 

446. The subjunctive was formerly common in indirect ques- 
tions, and is still occasionally used after if or whether. 

I doubt if it be true. 

Elton questioned whether the project were wise. 



182 MEANINGS OF SUBOEDINATE CLAUSES 

447. The rule for shall (should) and will (would) in indirect 
questions is, to retain the auxiliary used in the direct question, 
merely changing the tense (shall to should; will to would) 
when necessary (§ 442). 



I. Mere Futurity 

Direct : What shall I do? 
Indirect : I wonder what I shall do. 

You ask me what you shall do. 

He asks me what he shall do. 

I wondered what I should do. 

You asked me what you should do. 

He asked me what he should do. 



2. Direct : 
Indirect : 



3. Direct : 

Indirect : 



Shall you lose your position ? 
as I you if you shall lose your position. 

as e I you if you should lose your position. 
He asked j 

Will Charles lose his position ? 

I ask if Charles will lose his position. 

i 1 

You y asked if Charles would lose his position. 
Tom J 



II. Voiition 

4. Direct : Will you help me ? 

Indirect : You ask if I will help you. 
He asks if I will help him. 
You asked if I would help you. 
He asked if I would help him. 
I asked him *} r help me. 

You asked him >- if he would -\ help you. 
Tom asked him J Lhelp him. 

Note. There is a single exception to the rule in § 447. When, in changing 
from a direct to an indirect question, the third person with will or would be- 
comes the first, shall or should is substituted unless volition is expressed. 
Thus, John says to Thomas, " Will Charles die of his wound?" Charles, 
reporting John's question, says, lt John asked Thomas whether / should die of 
my wound." Compare § 438, note. 



\JU- 



PART THREE 

ANALYSIS 

CHAPTER I 
THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES 

448. Analysis is a Greek word which means w the act of dis- 
solving or breaking up." In grammar it is applied to the sepa- 
ration of a sentence into its constituent parts, or elements. To 
dissect a sentence in this way is to analyze it. 

The elements which make up a sentence are : (1) the simple 
subject; (2) the simple predicate; (3) modifiers; (4) the complements, 
— direct object, predicate objective, predicate adjective, predi- 
cate nominative ; and (5) the so-called independent elements, — 
the interjection, the vocative (or nominative of direct address), 
the exclamatory nominative, and various parenthetical expres- 
sions (§ 501). 

449. The absolute essentials for a sentence are a substantive 
as subject and a verb as predicate (§ 35). By combining these 
two indispensable elements, in various ways, with modifiers 
and complements, the sentence may be extended to any length 
desired. Indeed, the sole limits are the constructive skill of 
the writer and the hearer's ability to follow the thought with- 
out losing the thread. 

In the present chapter, we shall consider how sentences are 
built up, or constructed. Our starting point in this study will 
be the simple sentence. 

183 



184 STEUCTUEE OF SENTENCES 

SIMPLE SENTENCES 

450. The following statement is a simple sentence, for it con- 
tains but one subject and one predicate (§ 46) : — 

The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions. 

The framework or skeleton of this simple sentence consists 
of the subject noun bear (the simple subject) and the predicate 
verb lives (the simple predicate). To make the complete subject, 
bear takes as modifiers the two adjectives the and polar ; to 
make the complete predicate, lives takes as modifier the adverbial 
phrase in the Arctic regions. 

By attaching another simple subject to bear we make a 
compound subject. Similarly, we make a compound predicate by 
adding another verb (§ 38). 

The polar bear and the walrus | live and thrive in the Arctic regions. . 

The compound subject is bear and walrus; the compound 
predicate is live and thrive. Both verbs are modified by the 
adverbial phrase in the Arctic regions. The sentence itself is 
still a simple sentence. 

In each of the following simple sentences either the subject 
or the predicate or both are compound : — 

Games and carols closed the busy day. — Kogers. 

The stars leap forth, and tremble, and retire before the advancing 
moon. — George Meredith. 

Madame Defarge knitted with nimble fingers and steady eyebrows, 
and saw nothing. — Dickens. 

Work or worry had left its traces upon his thin, yellow face. — Doyle. 

Crows nutter about the towers and perch on every weathercock. 

Irving. 

He gained the door to the landing, pulled it open, and rushed forth. 

Lytton. 

Countrymen, butchers, drovers, hawkers, boys, thieves, idlers, and 
vagabonds of every low grade, were mingled together in a dense mass. 

Dickens. 

There stood the broad-wheeled wains and the antique plows and the 
harrows. — Longfellow. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES 185 

Both Augustus and Peters joined with him in his design and insisted 
upon its immediately being carried into effect. — Poe. 

Women and children, from garrets alike and cellars, through infinite 
London, look down or look up with loving eyes upon our gay ribbons 
and our martial laurels. — De Quincey. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES 

451. If we attach another simple sentence to that in § 450, 
the result is a compound sentence. 

The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions, || but || it | sometimes 
reaches temperate latitudes. 

This is manifestly a compound sentence, for it consists of two 
coordinate clauses, joined by the conjunction but (§ 46). 

The framework of the second clause consists of the subject 
it and the simple predicate reaches. To make the complete 
predicate, the verb reaches takes not only a modifier (the 
adverb sometimes), but a complement, — the direct object lati- 
tudes, which completes the meaning of the verb. This noun is 
itself modified by the adjective temjperate. Both clauses are 
simple, for each contains but one subject and one predicate. 

452. Obviously, almost any number of simple sentences may 

be joined (with or without conjunctions) to make one compound 

sentence. 

The quiet August noon has come ; 

A slumberous silence fills the sky ; 
The fields are still, the woods are dumb, 

In glassy sleep the waters lie. — Bryant. 

States fall, arts fade, but Nature does not die. — Byron. 

The court was sitting ; the case was heard ; the judge had finished ; 
and only the verdict was yet in arrear. — De Quincey. 

He softly blushed ; he sighed ; he hoped ; he feared ; he doubted ; he 
sometimes yielded to the delightful idea. — Thackeray. 

A mpb appeared before the window, a smart rap was heard at the 
door, the boys hallooed, and the maid announced Mr. Grenville. — Cowper. 

His health had suffered from confinement ; his high spirit had been 
cruelly wounded ; and soon after his liberation he died of a broken heart. 

Macaulay. 



186 STEUCTUEE OF SENTENCES 

COMPLEX SENTENCES 

453. The simple sentence in § 450 may be made complex by 
means of a subordinate clause used as a modifier (§ 47). 

The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions, sometimes reaches 
temperate latitudes. 

The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts 
southward. 

In the first example, the simple subject (bear), besides its two 
adjective modifiers (the &n& polar), takes a third, the adjective 
clause which lives in the Arctic regions (§ 47). The sentence, 
then, is complex : the main clause is the polar bear sometimes 
reaches temperate latitudes; the subordinate clause is which 
lives in the Arctic regions. 

The second sentence is also complex. The main clause is 
the same as in the first (the polar bear sometimes reaches tem- 
perate latitudes). The subordinate clause is when the ice drifts 
southward, an adverbial modifier of the predicate verb reaches. 

COMPOUND AND COMPLEX CLAUSES 

454. Two or more coordinate clauses may be joined to make 
one compound clause. 

The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions and whose physical con- 
stitution is wonderfully adapted to that frigid climate, sometimes reaches 
temperate latitudes. 

The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the floes 
break up and when the ice drifts southward. 

In the first example, the italicized words form a compound 
adjective clause, modifying the noun bear. It consists of two 
coordinate adjective clauses joined by and. These clauses are 
coordinate because they are of the same order or rank in the 
sentence (§ 46), each being (if taken singly) an adjective 
modifier of the noun. 

In the second example, the predicate verb reaches is modi- 
fied by a compound adverbial clause, similarly made up. 



COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES 187 

455. A clause is complex when it contains a modifying clause. 

The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home, 
sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. 

Here the adjective clause which lives in the Arctic regions 
tchen it is at home is complex, for it contains the adverbial 
clause when it is at home, modifying the verb lives. 



COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES 

456. Two or more independent complex clauses may be 
joined to make a compound complex sentence. 

The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in 
the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere ; || and || the polar bear 
sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward. 

This is a compound complex sentence, for it consists of two 
complex clauses joined by the coordinate conjunction and. 
Each of these two clauses is independent of the other, for 
each might stand by itself as a complex sentence. 

The first complex clause contains an adjective clause, of 
which there are several varieties, modifying bear ; the second 
contains an adverbial clause, when the ice drifts southward, 
modifying reaches. 

457. A sentence consisting of two or more independent 
clauses is also classed as a compound complex sentence if any 
one of these is complex. 

The brown bear is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern 
Hemisphere ; 1 1 and 1 1 the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate lati- 
tudes when the ice drifts southward. 

The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in 
the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere ; || and || the polar 
bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. 

Both of these are compound complex sentences. In one, the 
first clause is simple (§ 451) and the second is complex. In the 
other, the first clause is complex and the second is simple. 



188 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 

CHAPTER II 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 

SIMPLE SENTENCES 

458. In analyzing a simple sentence, we first divide it into 
the complete subject and the complete predicate. Then we point 
out the simple subject with its modifiers, and the simple predicate 
with its modifiers and complement (if there is one). If either the 
subject or the predicate is compound, we mention the simple 
subjects or predicates that are joined. 

1. The polar bear lives in the Arctic regions. 

This is a simple sentence. The complete subject is the polar bear; the 
complete predicate is lives in the Arctic regions. The simple subject is 
the noun bear ; the simple predicate is the verb lives. Bear is modified 
by the adjectives the and polar ; lives is modified by the adverbial phrase 
in the Arctic regions. This phrase consists of the preposition in; its 
object, the noun regions; and the adjectives the and Arctic, modifying 
regions, 

2. The polar bear and the walrus live and thrive in the Arctic regions. 

The complete subject is the polar bear and the walrus. Two simple 
subjects (bear and walrus) are joined by the conjunction and to make a 
compound subject, and two simple predicates (live and thrive) are joined 
by and to make a compound predicate. Live and thrive are both modified 
by the adverbial phrase in the Arctic regions. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES 

459. In analyzing a compound sentence we first divide it into 
its coordinate clauses, and then analyze each clause by itself. 
Thus,— 

The polar bear lives in the Arctic regions, but it sometimes reaches 
temperate latitudes. 

This is a compound sentence consisting of two coordinate clauses joined 
by the conjunction but : (1) the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions and 
(2) it sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. The complete subject of the 



COMPLEX SENTENCES 189 

first clause is the polar bear [and so on, as in § 458, above] . The subject of the 
second clause is it ; the complete predicate is sometimes reaches temperate 
latitudes. The simple predicate is reaches, which is modified by the adverb 
sometimes and is completed by the direct object latitudes. The comple- 
ment latitudes is modified by the adjective temperate. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES 

460. In analyzing a complex sentence, we first divide it into 
the main clause and the subordinate clause. 

1. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions, sometimes reaches 
temperate latitudes. 

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear some- 
times reaches temperate latitudes ; the subordinate clause is which lives in 
the Arctic regions. The complete subject of the sentence is the polar bear, 
which lives in the Arctic regions ; the complete predicate is sometimes 
reaches temperate latitudes. The simple subject is bear, which is modified 
by the adjectives the and polar and by the adjective clause which lives in the 
Arctic regions. The simple predicate is reaches, which is modified by the 
adverb sometimes and completed by the direct object latitudes. This com- 
plement, latitudes, is modified by the adjective temperate. The subordinate 
clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which. [Then analyze the 
subordinate clause.] 

2. The polar bear reaches temperate -latitudes when the ice drifts 
southward. 

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear reaches 
temperate latitudes ; the subordinate clause is when the ice drifts southward. 
The complete subject of the sentence is the polar bear; the complete 
predicate is reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward. The 
simple subject is bear, which is modified by the adjectives the and polar. 
The simple predicate is reaches, which is modified by the adverbial clause 
when the ice drifts southward, and completed by the noun latitudes (the 
direct object of reaches). The complement latitudes is modified by the 
adjective temperate. The subordinate clause is introduced by the relative 
adverb when. [Then analyze the subordinate clause.] 

3. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at 
home, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. 

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear some- 
times reaches temperate latitudes ; the subordinate clause is which lives in 
the Arctic regions when it is at home, which is complex, since it contains 
the adverbial clause when it is at home, modifying the verb lives. 



190 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 

4. He says that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions. 

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is he says ; the subordinate 
clause is that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions. The subject of the sen- 
tence is he, the complete predicate is says that the polar bear lives in the Arctic 
regions. The simple predicate is says, which is completed by its direct object, 
the noun clause that . . . regions, introduced by the conjunction that. [Then 
analyze the subordinate clause.] 

5. That the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes is a 
familiar fact. 

This is a complex sentence. The main clause (is a familiar fact) appears as 
a predicate only, since the subordinate clause (that the polar bear sometimes 
reaches temperate latitudes) is a noun clause used as the complete subject of 
the sentence. The simple predicate is is, which is completed by the predicate 
nominative/c?c£. This complement is modified by the adjectives a and familiar. 
The subordinate clause, which is used as the complete subject, is introduced 
by the conjunction that. [Then analyze this clause.] 



COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES 

461. In analyzing a compound complex sentence, we first 
divide it into the independent clauses (simple or complex) of 
which it consists, and then analyze each of these as if it 
were a sentence by itself. 

See the examples in §§ 456, 457. 



MODIFIEES 191 

CHAPTER III 
MODIFIERS 

462. The various kinds of modifiers and complements have 
all been studied in preceding chapters, — each in connection 
with the construction which it illustrates. For purposes of 
analysis, however, it is necessary to consider modifiers as such 
and complements as such. 

The topics will be taken up in the following order : — (1) mod- 
ifiers, — of the subject, of the predicate; (2) complements; 
(3) modifiers of complements; (4) modifiers of modifiers. 

463. A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning 
of another word is called a modifier (§ 19). 

Men "| 

Able men y can always find employment. 

Men of ability J 

Walls "^ 

Battlemented walls [■ usually enclosed mediaeval cities. 

Walls with battlements J 

Cottages "^ 

English cottages y are often thatched. 

Cottages in England J 

The boy listened/ ^f^* 

\^with eagerness. 

I coughed [Vurvosely. 
\on purpose. 

The bullet passed ^armless^. 

I without doing harm. 

464.- Modifiers may be attached not only to substantives 
and verbs, but also to adjectives and adverbs. 

All modifiers of substantives are called adjective modifiers ; all 
modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are called adverbial 
modifiers. 



192 MODIFIEKS 

Note. The terms adjective modifier and adjective are not synonymous. All 
adjectives are adjective modifiers, but all adjective modifiers are not adjec- 
tives. Thus, in "Henry's skates are rusty/' the possessive noun Henry's is 
an adjective modifier, since it limits the noun skates as an adjective might do. 

465. A group of words used as a modifier may be either a 
phrase or a clause (§§ 40-46). 

Able men "i 

Men of ability )- can always find employment. 

Men who have ability J 

{thoughtlessly, 
without thinking, 
before I thought. 

A phrase or a clause used as an adjective modifier is called an adjec- 
tive phrase or clause. 

A phrase or a clause used as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial 
phrase or clause. 

Adjective and adverbial clauses are always subordinate, because 
they are used as parts of speech (§ 46). 



MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 

466. Any substantive in the sentence may take an adjective 
modifier, but modifiers of the subject are particularly important. 

The simple subject may be modified by (1) an adjective, an 
adjective phrase, or an adjective clause ; (2) a participle ; (3) an 
infinitive ; (4) a possessive ; (5) an appositive. 

I. ADJECTIVES, ADJECTIVE PHRASES, ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 

467. The simple subject may be modified by an adjective, an 
adjective phrase, or an adjective clause. 

Ivory trinkets "] 

Trinkets of ivory May scattered about. 

Trinkets which were carved from ivory J 

Treeless spots ^ 

Spots without trees ^were plainly visible. 

Spots where no trees grew J 



MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 193 

In each of these groups of sentences, the subject of the first 
sentence is modified by an adjective, that of the second by an 
adjective phrase, that of the third by an adjective clause. 

Most adjective phrases are prepositional (§ 42), as in the 
examples. 

468. An adjective clause may be introduced by a relative pro- 
noun or a relative adverb. For lists, see § 377. 

I. Relative Pronouns 

The architect who designed this church was a man of genius. 
The painter whom Buskin oftenest mentions is Turner. 
A piece of amber which is rubbed briskly will attract bits of paper. 
The day that I dreaded came at last. 

The plain through which this river flows is marvelously fertile. 
The book from which I got this information is always regarded as 
authoritative. 

A friend in whom one can trust is a treasure beyond price. 
The boys with whom he associates do him no good. 

II. Relative Adverbs 

The spot where the Old Guard made their last stand is marked by a 
bronze eagle. 

The morning when I arrived in Rome is one of my pleasantest memories. 

The year after Ashton left home brought fresh disaster. 

The land whence Scyld drifted in his magic boat will never be known. 

Note. A preposition and a relative pronoun may often replace a relative 
adverb. Thus, in the second example, on which might be substituted for when. 



II. PARTICIPLES 

469. The subject may be modified by a participle (with or 
without modifier or complement). 

1. Smiling, the child shook his head. 

2. My aunt, reassured, took up her book again. 

3. The prisoner sank back exhausted. 

4. Exasperated beyond endurance, the captain cut the rope. 

5. John, obeying a sudden impulse, took to his heels. 



194 MODIFIEES 

6. Having broken one oar, Robert had to scull. 

7 . The natives, fearing captivity above all things, leaped into the river. 

8. Albert left the room, looking rather sullen. 

In the fourth example the participle is modified by an adver- 
bial phrase; in the fifth and sixth, it has an object; in the 
seventh, it has both an object and a modifier; in the eighth, 
it is followed by the predicate adjective sullen. In analysis, 
the whole participial phrase (consisting of the participle and 
accompanying words) may be treated as an adjective phrase 
modifying the subject; but it is simpler to regard the par- 
ticiple as the modifier, and then to enumerate its modifiers, 
etc., separately. 

Thus, in the seventh example, the simple subject natives is modified by 
the participle fearing, which has for a complement captivity (the direct 
object) and is modified by the adverbial phrase above all things. 

Note. A participle, though a modifier of the subject, has at the same time 
a peculiar relation to the predicate, because it may take the place of an adver- 
bial clause. Thus, in the seventh example, fearing is practically equivalent to 
the clause because they feared, which, if substituted for the participle, would 
of course modify the predicate verb leaped. This dual office of the participle 
comes from its twofold nature as (1) an adjective and (2) a verb. In analyzing, 
we treat the participle as an adjective modifier of the noun to which it be- 
longs ; but its function as a substitute for an adverbial clause is an important 
means of securing variety in style. 



HI. INFINITIVES 
470. The subject may be modified by an infinitive. 

Eagerness to learn was young Lincoln's strongest passion. 
Desire to travel made Taylor restless. 
The wish to succeed prompted him to do his best. 
Ability to write rapidly is a valuable accomplishment. 
Howard's unwillingness to desert a friend cost him his life. 

In the fourth example, the infinitive has an adverbial modi- 
fier (rapidly) ; and in the fifth, it has a complement, its object 
(friend). In such instances, two methods of analysis are allow 
able, as in the case of participial phrases (§ 469). 



MODIFIEES OF THE SUBJECT 195 

IV. POSSESSIVES 

471. The subject may be modified by a substantive in the 
possessive case. 

Such a substantive may be called a possessive modifier. 

Napoleon's tomb is in Paris. 

A marts house is his castle. 

One's taste in reading changes as one grows older. 

A moment 1 s thought would have saved me. 

The squirreVs teeth grow rapidly. 

The Indians' 1 camp was near the river. 

His name is Alfred. 

Your carriage has arrived. 

In each of these examples, a substantive in the possessive 
case modifies the subject by limiting its meaning precisely as 
an adjective would do. 

Note. An adjective phrase may often be substituted for a possessive. 
Thus, in the first example, instead of "Napoleon's tomb " one may say "the 
tomb of Napoleon " (§ 93) . 

V. APPOSITIVES 

472. The subject may be modified by a substantive in appo- 
sition (§ 88, 5). 

Meredith the carpenter lives in that house. 

Herbert, our captain, has broken his leg. 

The idol of the Aztecs, a grotesque image, was thrown down by the 
Spaniards. 

Many books, both pamphlets and bound volumes, littered the table. 
[Here the subject (books) is modified by two appositives.] 

Appositives often have modifiers of their own. 

Thus carpenter is modified by the adjective the, captain by the pos- 
sessive our, image by the adjectives a and grotesque. 

In analyzing, the whole appositive phrase (consisting of the appositive and 
attached words) may be regarded as modifying the subject. It is as well, 
however, to treat the appositive as the modifier and then to enumerate the 
adjectives, etc., by which the appositive itself is modified. 



196 MODIFIEES 

473. A noun clause may be used as an appositive, and so 
may be an adjective modifier (§ 386). 

The question whether Antonio was a citizen was settled in the affirma- 
tive. [Here the italicized clause is used as a noun in apposition with 
question,] 

The statement that water freezes seems absurd to a native of the torrid 
zone. [The clause that water freezes is in apposition with statement.] 

An adjective in the appositive position is often called an appositive adjective 
(§ 172). "A sword, keen and bright, flashed from the soldier's scabbard." 



MODIFIEES OF THE PREDICATE 

474. The simple predicate, being a verb or verb-phrase, can 
have only adverbial modifiers. 

The simple predicate may be modified by (1) an abverb, an 
adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause, (2) an infinitive, (3) an 
adverbial objective, (4) a nominative absolute, (5) an indirect object, 
(6) a cognate object. 

I. ADVERB, ADVERBIAL PHRASE, ADVERBIAL CLAUSE 

475. The simple predicate may be modified by an adverb, 
an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause. 

( monthly. 
The landlord collects his rents \ on the first of every month. 

[when the first of the month comes, 

{there, 
at the cross-roads, 
where the roads meet. 
{early, 
before the last speech, 
while the last speech was being delivered. 

In each of these groups, the simple predicate of the first 
sentence is modified by an adverb, that of the second by an 
adverbial phrase, and that of the third by an adverbial clause. 

Most adverbial phrases are prepositional (§ 42). 



MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE 



197 



Adverb 


Adverbial Phrase 


Adverb 


speedily 


with speed 


rapidly 


furiously 


with fury 


skilfully 


lately 

instantly 

there 


of late 

in an instant 

in that place 


promptly 

to-morrow 

unwillingly 



Adverbial Phrase 

at a rapid rate 
J in a skilful manner 
^with skill 
on the instant 
on the morrow 
against my will 



Peculiar adverbial phrases are : - 



to and fro, now and then, up and down, again and again, first and last, 
full speed, full tilt, hit or miss, more or less, head first, upside down, 
inside out, sink or swim, cash down. 

476. An adverbial clause that modifies a verb may be intro- 
duced by (1) a relative adverb, or (2) a subordinate conjunction. 

I. Relative Adverbs 

Our colonel was always found where the fighting was fiercest. 

When I give the signal, press the button. 

Whenever I call, you refuse to see me. 

Miller arrived after the play had begun. 

Everybody listened while the vagrant told his story. 

My uncle laughed until the tears came. 

The prisoner has not been seen since he made his escape. 



II. Subordinate Conjunctions 

Archer resigned because his health failed. 
I will give the address if you will let me choose my subject. 
Brandon insisted on walking, although the roads were dangerous. 
The child ran with all her might lest she should be too late. 
I gave you a front seat in order that you might hear. 
The town lies at the base of a lofty cliff so that it is sheltered from the 
north wind. 

II. INFINITIVE 

477. The simple predicate may be modified by an infinitive 

(§ 323). 

He lay down to rest. 

I stopped to listen. 

The fire continued to burn. 



198 MODIFIEES 

The wind began to subside. 

Jack worked hard to fell the tree. 

Will did his best to win the prize. 

Kate began to weep bitterly. 

That draughtsman seems to be remarkably skilful. 

The infinitive may have a complement or a modifier, as in 
,the last four examples. 

HI. ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE 

478. The simple predicate may be modified by an adverbial 
objective (§ 109). 

I have waited ages. 
We have walked miles. 
Arthur practised weeks. 

The addition of modifiers to the adverbial objective makes 
an adverbial phrase. 

Walter ran the entire distance. 
He stayed a whole day. 
I will forgive you this time. 
He came at me full tilt. 
The wind blew all night. 
Come with me a little way. 

In the first sentence, the adverbial phrase the entire distance 
modifies the verb ran as an adverb would do. This phrase 
consists of the noun distance with its adjective modifiers, the 
and entire. 

IV. NOBCTNATIVE ABSOLUTE 

479. The simple predicate may be modified by a nominative 
absolute (§ 345). 

A substantive in the absolute construction makes with its 
modifiers an adverbial phrase. 

The ship having arrived, we all embarked. 
We shall sail on Tuesday, weather permitting. 
That done, repair to Pompey's theatre. 

The bridge across the chasm being only a single tree trunk, we hesitated 
to attempt the passage. 



MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE 199 

In the first sentence, the adverbial absolute phrase, the ship 
having arrived, is equivalent to the adverbial prepositional 
phrase, on the arrival of the ship, and defines the time of the 
action expressed by the verb embarked. 

V. INDIRECT OBJECT 

480. The simple predicate may be modified by an indirect 
object (§ 105). 

He gave me a watch. [= He gave a watch to me.] 

Tom told me the whole story. [= Tom told the whole story to me.] 

In these sentences, the indirect object me, being equivalent 
to a prepositional phrase, is an adverbial modifier. 

The objective of service (§ 106) is also an adverbial modifier. 

VI. COGNATE OBJECT 

481. The simple predicate may be modified by a cognate object 

or by a phrase containing such an object (§ 108). 

The officer looked daggers at me [= looked at me angrily]. 

The shepherd sang a merry song [= sang merrily]. 

The skipper laughed a scornful laugh [= laughed scornfully]. 

In the first sentence, the cognate object (daggers) modifies 
the predicate verb (looked) as the adverb angrily would do. 
It is therefore an adverbial modifier. In the second and third 
sentences the modifier of the predicate verb (sang, laughed) is 
an adverbial phrase consisting of a cognate object (song, laugh) 
with its adjective modifiers (a merry, a scornful). 



200 COMPLEMENTS 

CHAPTER IV 
COMPLEMENTS 

482. 1. Some verbs have a meaning that is complete in itself. 
Such a verb needs only a subject. When this has been sup- 
plied, we have a sentence, for the mere verb, without any- 
additional word or words, is capable of being a predicate. 

Birds,/??/. The man scowled. 

Fishes swim. The girl laughed. 

The sun shines. The owls hooted. 

The moon rose. The clock ticked. 

Verbs of this kind are sometimes called complete verbs, or verbs 
of complete predication. 

2. Other verbs are not, by themselves, capable of serving as 
predicates. Thus, — 

The Indians killed . Tom is . 

Mr. Harris makes . The man seemed . 

These are not sentences, for the predicate of each is unfin- 
ished. The verb requires the addition of a substantive or an 
adjective to complete its sense. 

The Indians killed deer. Tom is captain. 

Mr. Harris makes shoes. The man seemed sorry. 

Verbs of this kind are often called incomplete verbs, or verbs of 
incomplete predication. 

Note. The meaning of the verb determines to which of these classes it 
belongs. Accordingly, the same verb may belong to the first class in some of 
its senses and to the second in others (§§ 212-215) . 

483. A substantive or adjective added to the predicate verb to com- 
plete its meaning is called a complement. 

Complements are of four kinds, — the direct object, the predicate 
objective, the predicate nominative, and the predicate adjective. 



THE DIRECT OBJECT 201 

In the examples in § 482, deer and shoes are direct objects, 
— the former denoting the receiver of the action, the latter 
denoting the product; captain is a predicate nominative, denot- 
ing the same person as the subject Tom (§ 88, 2) ; sorry is a 
predicate adjective describing the subject man. 

Complements may, of course, be modified. If they are sub- 
stantives, they may take adjective modifiers ; if adjectives, they 
may take adverbial modifiers (§§ 464, 494). 

484. For convenience, the definitions of the four kinds of 
complements are here repeated, with examples. 

1. THE DIEECT OBJECT 

485. Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that 
which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called tran- 
sitive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive. 

A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called 
its direct object (§ 100). 

The direct object is often called the object complement, or merely the object 
of the verb. 

Alfred has broken his arm, 

Morse invented the electric telegraph. 

Black foxes command a high price. 

You have accomplished a task of great difficulty. 

Have you lost the dog which your uncle gave you ? 

He asked me the news. [Two direct objects (§ 103).] 

Most of these objects are modified, — arm by the possessive 
his ; telegraph by the and electric ; price by a and high ; task 
by the adjective phrase of great difficulty ; dog by the and by 
the adjective clause which your uncle gave you. 

486. A noun clause may be used as the direct object of a 
verb (§ 386). 

You promised that my coat should be ready to-day. 

The mayor ordered that the street should be closed for three hours. 

I begged that my passport might be returned to me. 

For further examples, see §§ 407, 432, 439, 441. 



202 COMPLEMENTS 

2. THE PREDICATE OBJECTIVE 

487. Verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making , and thinking may take 
two objects referring to the same person or thing. 

The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes 
the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objective (§ 104). 

The predicate objective is often called the complementary object or the 
objective attribute. 

The people have elected Chamberlain governor. 
Peter calls Richard my shadow. 
The court has appointed you the child's guardian. 
John thinks himself a hero. 

488. An adjective may serve as a predicate objective. Thus, — 

I thought your decision hasty 
I call that answer impertinent. 
The jury found the prisoner guilty. 
Your letter made him joyful. 

Care should be taken not to confuse adverbs with adjectives 
in -ly serving as predicate objectives. 

You called him sickly. [Adjective.] 
You called him early. [Adverb.] 

After the passive, a predicate objective becomes a predicate 
nominative (§ 489). 

3. THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE 

489. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defin- 
ing the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate 
nominative (§ 88, 2). 

A predicate nominative is often called a subject complement or an attribute. 

The predicate nominative is common after is and other copula- 
tive verbs, and after certain transitive verbs in the passive voice. 

Chemistry is a useful science. 

Boston is the capital of Massachusetts. 

Jefferson became President. 



THE PKEDICATE NOMINATIVE 203 

This bird is called & flamingo. 
Mr. Hale was appointed secretary. 
Albert has been chosen captain of the crew. 
You are a, friend upon whom I can rely. 

In most of the examples, the predicate nominative has one 
or more modifiers. In the first sentence, science is modified by 
the two adjectives a and useful ; in the second, capital is modi- 
fied by the adjective phrase of Massachusetts; in the last, 
friend is modified by the adjective clause upon whom lean rely. 

For the distinction between the predicate nominative and the 
direct object, see § 102. 

490. A noun clause may be used as a predicate nominative 

(§ 386). 

My plan is that the well should be dug to-morrow. 
His intention was that you should remain here. 
The result is that he is bankrupt. 
Ruth's fear was that the door might be locked. 

491. An infinitive may be used as a predicate nominative. 

To hear is to obey. 

My hope was to reach the summit before dark. 
Their plan was to undermine the tower. 
My habit is to rise early. 

The infinitive may have a complement or modifiers. In the 
second and third examples, it takes an object; in the fourth 
it is modified by an adverb. 



4. THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE 

492. An adjective in the predicate belonging to a noun or pronoun in 
the subject is called a predicate adjective. 

A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate verb 
and is therefore a complement (§ 172, 3.) 

Like the predicate nominative, the predicate adjective is 
common after copulative verbs and after certain transitive 
verbs in the passive voice (§§ 172. 3; 252V 



204 COMPLEMENTS 

John was angry. 

My knife is growing dull. 

The task seemed very easy. 

The report proved false in every particular. 

The boat was thought unsafe. 

The cover was made perfectly tight. 

In some of these examples, the predicate adjective has a 
modifier. In the third, easy is modified by the adverb very ; 
in the fourth, false is modified by the adverbial phrase in every 
particular ; in the last, tight is modified by perfectly. 

493. An adjective phrase may be used as a predicate adjec- 
tive. Thus, — 

Richard was out of health. [Compare : Richard was ill.] 
Rachel seemed in a passion. [Compare: seemed angry.] 
This act is against my interests. [Compare : is harmful to me.] 

The adjective phrase may consist of an infinitive with or 
without the preposition about (§ 319). 

I was about to speak. 
This house is to let. 
I am to sail to-morrow. 



MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS 205 

CHAPTER V 
MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS AND OF MODIFIERS 

COMPLEMENTS MODIFIED 

494. Complements, being either substantives or adjectives, 
may be modified in various ways, most of which have been noted 
in Chapter III. 

1. A substantive used as a complement may have the same 
kinds of modifiers that are used with the subject (§ 466). 

2. An adjective complement admits only adverbial modifiers. 

495. The following sentences illustrate the modifiers of 
substantive complements : — 

Herbert lost a gold watch. [The direct object {watch) is modified by 
the adjectives a and gold.] 

The duke built towers of marble. [The direct object (towers) is modified 
by the adjective phrase of marble.'] 

My father built the house in which I was born. [The direct object 
(house) is modified by the adjective the and the adjective clause in which 
I was born."] 

I saw a man running across the field. [The direct object (man) is 
modified by the adjective a and the participle running.] 

You have forfeited your right to vote. [The direct object (right) is 
modified by the possessive pronoun your and the infinitive to vote.] 

I have seen Henry's brother. [The direct object (brother) is modified 
by the possessive noun Henry'' s.] 

I must ask my brother, the mayor. [The direct object (brother) is 
modified by the possessive pronoun my and the appositive mayor.] 

The guild has elected Walter honorary president. [The predicate ob- 
jective (president) is modified by the adjective honorary.] 

Her husband is an old soldier. [The predicate nominative (soldier) is 
modified by the adjectives an and old.] 

Her sons are veterans of the Franco-Prussian war. [The predicate 
nominative (veterans) is modified by the adjective phrase of the Franco- 
Prussian war.] 

They are rivals in business. [The predicate nominative (rivals) is 
modified by the adjective phrase in business.] 



206 MODIFIEES OF COMPLEMENTS 

The author is Will Jewell, who was formerly editor of ff The Pioneer.'' 1 
[The predicate nominative (Will Jewell) is modified by the adjective 
clause who was formerly editor, etc.] 

Baldwin is the man standing under the tree. [The predicate nomina- 
tive (man) is modified by the adjective the and the participle standing.] 

Your chief fault is your inclination to procrastinate. [The predicate 
nominative (inclination) is modified by the possessive pronoun your and 
the infinitive to procrastinate.] 

This man is Gretchen's brother. [The predicate nominative (brother) 
is modified by the possessive noun Gretchen's.] 

The first to fall was the bugler, John Wilson. [The predicate nom- 
inative (bugler) is modified by the adjective the and the appositive 
John Wilson.] 

496. Adjective clauses are very common as modifiers of sub- 
► stantive complements (cf. § 468). 

Have you lost the watch that your cousin gave you f 

This is the very spot where the temple of Saturn stood. 

The general issued an order that all non-combatants should be treated 
well. 

We have abundant proof that during his stay on the Continent, Bacon 
did not neglect literary and scientific pursuits. 

497. An adjective used as a complement may be modified 
by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause. 

I am very sorry for you. [Sorry is modified by the adverb very and the 
adverbial phrase for you.] 

( rather ^ 
Charles seems J very \* angry. 

I. extremely J 

The road is rough/ ^l***. .. 

^ where they are. repairing it. 

The whole tribe appeared eager for war. 
He grew envious of his successful rival. 
Be zealous in every righteous cause. 
The chief's face looked dark with passion. 

He was selfish beyond belief. [The predicate adjective (selfish) is modi- 
fied by the adverbial phrase beyond belief] 

Ellen seemed desirous that her friends should admire her. 

The secretary appeared unwilling to resign. [See § 321, note.] 



MODIFIEKS OF MODIFIEKS 207 

MODIFIERS OF OTHER MODIFIERS 
498. Modifiers may themselves be modified. 

The chief varieties of such modification are illustrated in 
che following sentences. 

I. Adjectives or adjective phrases may be modified by adverbs 
or by words or groups of words used adverbially. 

A very old man came to the door. 

An exceedingly dangerous curve lay beyond the bridge. 

This rather odd proposal interested us. 

The quay is miles long. [Adverbial objective (§ 109).] 

At least five different amendments have been offered. [Five is modi- 
fied by the adverbial phrase at least.] 

The general, wholly in the dark as to the enemy's intentions, ordered 
an advance. [The adjective phrase in the dark is modified by wholly.] 

Quite at his ease, John began to speak. [At his ease is modified by 
quite.] 

Her smile, pathetic in its weariness, quickly faded. [The adverbial 
phrase modifies pathetic.] 

This sleeve is a good two inches short. [The phrase modifies short.] 

II. Possessive nouns may be modified by adjectives or by 

possessives. 

The poor man's days are numbered, 
Honest Tom's face shone with delight. 
The faithful animal's head drooped. 
My uncle's barn is on fire. 
John's brother's name is Reginald. 

III. Appositives may be modified by adjectives or by groups 
of words used as adjectives. 

Joe, the old butler, met me at the station. 

Sam, the cunning rascal, had stolen the oars. 

Her mother, a woman of fashion, sadly neglected her. 

The other, the man at the table, laughed rudely. 

Ferdinand Oliver, the engineer who had charge of the construction, 
proved incompetent. 

Two Englishmen, friends whom I visited last summer, are coming to 
New York in December. 



208 MODIFIEES OF MODIFIEES 

IV. Adverbs or adverbial phrases may be modified by adverbs 
or by words or groups of words used adverbially. 

Jane plays very well. 
Robert spoke almost hopefully. 
She answered quite at random. 
I write to him at least once a year. 

499. An adjective may be modified by an infinitive (§ 321). 

Unable to move, I suffered torments of anxiety. 
The sailors, eager to reach the island, plunged into the sea. 
Reluctant to act, but unwilling to stand idle, Burwell was in a pitiful 
state of indecision. 

500. Adjective and adverbial clauses are very common as 
modifiers of modifiers (cf. § 496). 

Geronimo, an old chief who bore the scars of many battles, led the attack. 
[The adjective clause modifies the appositive chief.] 

The servant, angry because he had been rebuked, slammed the door as 
he went out. 

The hunter, confident that the deer had not heard him, took deliberate 
aim. 

The fugitive, in a panic lest he should be overtaken, made frantic efforts 
to scale the cliff. [The adverbial clause modifies the adjective phrase 
in a panic] 



INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 209 

CHAPTER VI 
INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 

501. A word or group of words that has no grammatical connection 
with the sentence in which it stands is called an independent element. 

Independent elements are of four kinds, — interjections, vocatives (or 
nominatives by direct address), exclamatory nominatives, and paren- 
thetical expressions. 

Ah ! why did I undertake this task ? 

Help arrived, alas ! too late. 

You are a strange man, Arthur, 

Mary, come here ! 

Poor Charles ! I am sorry for him. 

Clothes ! clothes ! you are always wanting clothes. 

Lucky she ! we are all envious of her prospects. 

The first two sentences contain interjections (§ 372) ; the 
second two, vocatives (or nominatives by direct address) 
(§88,3); the last three, exclamatory nominatives (§88,4). 

When the independent word has a modifier (as in the fifth 
and seventh examples), the whole phrase may be treated as 
an independent element. 

502. A word or group of words attached to or inserted in a sentence 
as a mere comment, without belonging either to the subject or the 
predicate, is said to be parenthetical. 

The market, indeed, was already closed. 

Peter, to be sure, was not very trustworthy. 

The house, at all events, is safe. 

The road is, I admit, very hilly. 

Luttrell's method, it must be confessed, was a little disappointing. 

Richard was not a bad fellow, after all. 

503. In analysis, an independent element is mentioned by 
itself, and not as a part of the complete subject or the com- 
plete predicate. 



210 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES 

CHAPTER VII 
COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES 

504. The use of subordinate clauses as complements and 
modifiers, and as modifiers of complements and of modifiers, may 
produce sentences of great length and complicated structure. 

Such sentences, if skilfully composed, are not hard to follow. 
Their analysis requires merely the intelligent application of a 
few simple principles, which have already been explained and 
illustrated. 

505. These principles may be summed up as follows : — 

I. All clauses are either independent or subordinate. A clause 
is subordinate if it is used as a part of speech (noun, adjective, 
or adverb) ; otherwise, it is independent (§ 46). 

II. Coordinate means "of the same rank" in the sentence 
(§ 46). 

1. Two or more independent clauses in the same sentence are 
manifestly coordinate. 

The fire blazed and the wood crackled. [Two declarative clauses.] 
What is your name, and where were you born f [Interrogative clauses.] 
Sit down and tell me your story. [Imperative clauses.] 

2. Two or more subordinate clauses are coordinate with each 
other when they are used together in the same construction, — 
as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 

Such a group may be regarded as forming one compound 
subordinate clause. 

The truth is, that I have no money and that my friends have forsaken 
me. [Noun clauses.] 

The Indians, who were armed with long lances, and who showed great 
skill in using them, made a furious attack on the cavalry. [Adjective 
clauses.] 

When he had spoken, but before a vote had been taken, a strange tumult 
was heard in the outer room , [Adverbial clauses.] 



COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES 211 

In the first example, we have a compound noun clause ; in the 
second, a compound adjective clause ; in the third, a compound 
adverbial clause. 

3. Coordinate clauses are either joined by coordinate con- 
junctions (and, or, but, etc.), or such conjunctions may be 
supplied without changing the sense (§ 362). 

The good-natured old gentleman, who was friendly to both parties, [and] 
who did not lack courage, and who hated a quarrel, spoke his mind with 
complete frankness. 

III. A subordinate clause may depend on another subordi- 
nate clause. 

The horse shied when he saw the locomotive. [The subordinate clause 
depends upon the independent (main) clause.] 

The horse shied when he saw the locomotive, which was puffing vio- 
lently. [The second subordinate clause depends upon the first, being an 
adjective modifier of locomotive.] 

In such cases, the whole group of subordinate clauses may 
be taken together as forming one complex subordinate clause. 

Thus, in the second example, when he saw the locomotive, which was 
puffing violently may be regarded as a complex adverbial clause modify- 
ing shied, and containing an adjective clause (which was puffing violently). 

506. From the principles summarized in § 505, it appears 
that — 

Clauses (like sentences) may be simple, compound, or complex. 

1. A simple clause contains but one subject and one predicate, 
either or both of which may be compound (§ 451). 

2. A compound clause consists of two or more coordinate clauses 
(§ 454). 

3. A complex clause consists of at least two clauses, one of 
which is subordinate to the other. 

507. The unit in all combinations of clauses is clearly the 
simple sentence, which, when used as a part of a more com- 
plicated sentence, becomes a simple clause. 



212 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES 

The processes used in such combinations, as we have seen, 
are really but two in number, — coordination and subordination. 

Coordination of clauses produces compound sentences or compound 
clauses ; subordination of one clause to another produces complex sen- 
tences or complex clauses. 

508. Every sentence, however long and complicated, belongs 
(in structure) to one of the three classes, — simple, compound, 
and complex. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES 

509. A simple sentence may have a compound subject or predi- 
cate (or both), and may also include a number of modifiers and 
complements. 

Obviously, then, a simple sentence need not be short. It 
remains simple in structure so long as it contains but one simple 
or compound subject and one simple or compound predicate. 
Thus, — 

1. You leave Glasgow in a steamboat, go down the Clyde fourteen 
miles, and then come to Dumbarton Castle, a huge rock five or six hun- 
dred feet high, not connected with any other high land, and with a 
fortress at the top. — Webster. 

The length of this sentence is due partly to its compound predicate, partly 
to the modifier (and modifiers of the modifier) attached to the noun Dumbarton 

Castle. 

2. He was little disposed to exchange his lordly repose for the insecure 
and agitated life of a conspirator, to be in the power of accomplices, to 
live in constant dread of warrants and king's messengers, nay, perhaps, 
to end his days on a scaffold, or to live on alms in some back street of 
the Hague. — Macaulay. 

This sentence is lengthened by means of a series of infinitives used as 
adverbial modifiers of the complement disposed (a participle used as an adjec- 
tive) . Each of these infinitives takes a complement or a modifier (or both) . 

3. The arbitrary measures of Charles I, the bold schemes of Strafford, 
and the intolerant bigotry of Laud, precipitated a collision between the 
opposite principles of government, and divided the whole country into 
Cavaliers and Roundheads. — Mat. 



COMPOUND SUBJECT AND PEEDICATE 213 

Both the subject and the predicate are compound. Each of the three nouns 
in the compound subject has modifiers. The two verbs in the compound 
predicate have each a complement, and the second has an adverbial modifier 
(a phrase). 

4. Twenty of the savages now got on board and proceeded to ramble 
over every part of the deck and scramble about among the rigging, mak- 
ing themselves much at home and examining every article with great 
inquisitiveness. — Poe. 

The predicate is compound. The sentence is extended by the use of parti- 
ciples {making and examining), which modify the simple subject twenty. 

5. She was tumbled early, by accident or design, into a spacious 
closet of good old English reading, without much selection or prohibi- 
tion, and browsed at will upon that fair and wholesome pasturage. — 
Lamb. 

6. The mermaid was still seen to glide along the waters, and mingling 
her voice with the sighing breeze, was often heard to sing of subterranean 
wonders, or to chant prophecies of future events. — Scott. 

7. With early dawn, they were under arms, and, without waiting for 
the movement of the Spaniards, poured into the city and attacked them 
in their own quarters. — Prescott. 

8. Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered 
the feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received the homage 
of the Senate, and, assuming the title of Augustus, precariously reigned 
during a tumult of twenty-eight days. — Gibbon. 

Note. A simple sentence with compound predicate often differs very slightly 
from a compound sentence. Thus in examples 4-7 the insertion of a single pro- 
noun {they, sh<e) to serve as a subject for the second verb {proceeded, browsed, 
etc.) will make the sentence compound. 



COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 

510. Every sentence that is not simple must be either 
compound or complex. 

A sentence is compound if it consists of two or more independ- 
ent clauses ; complex, if it consists of one independent (main) 
clause and one or more subordinate clauses. 

511. An ordinary compound sentence consists of two or more 
coordinate simple clauses. 



214 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES 

Such a sentence may be of great length (as in the last ex- 
ample below), but its structure is usually transparent. 

A cricket chirps on the hearth, | and | we are reminded of Christmas 
gambols long ago. — Hazlitt. 

The moments were numbered ; | the strife was finished ; | the vision 
was closed. — De Qutncey. 

The old king had retired to his couch that night in one of the strong- 
est towers of the Alhambra, | but | his restless anxiety kept him from 
repose. — Irving. 

The clock has just struck two ; | the expiring taper rises and sinks in 
the socket ; | the watchman forgets his hour in slumber ; | the laborious and 
the happy are at rest ; | and | nothing wakes but meditation, guilt, revelry, 
and despair. — Goldsmith. 

The present, indeed, is not a contest for distant or contingent objects ; 
| it is not a contest for acquisition of territory ; | it is not a contest for 
power and glory ; | as little is it carried on merely for any commercial 
advantage, or any particular form of government ; | but | it is a contest 
for the security, the tranquillity, and the very existence of Great Britain, 
connected with that of every established government and every country 
in Europe. — Pitt. 

512. A complex sentence, in its most elementary form, con- 
sists of one simple independent (main) clause and one simple 
subordinate clause. 

The gas exploded when I struck a match. 

Though he is idle, he is not lazy. 

The carpenter who fell from the roof has recovered from his injuries. 

Their eyes were so fatigued with the eternal dazzle and whiteness, 
that they lay down on their backs upon deck to relieve their sight on 
the blue sky. — Keats. 

The shouts of thousands, their menacing gestures, the fierce clashing 
of their arms, astonished and subdued the courage of Vetranio, who 
stood, amidst the defection of his followers, in anxious and silent 
suspense. — Gibbon. 

513. Both compound sentences and complex sentences ad- 
mit of much variety in structure, according to the nature and 
the relations of the clauses that compose them. 



COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES 215 

COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES 

514. Any or all of the coordinate clauses that make up a compound 
sentence may be complex. In that case, the sentence is called a compound 
complex sentence. 

Note. Compound complex sentences form a special class or subdivision 
under the general head of compound sentences. 1 

Old Uncle Venner was just coming out of his door, with a wood-horse 
and saw on his shoulder ; and, trudging along the street, he scrupled not 
to keep company with Phoebe, so far as their paths lay together ; nor, in 
spite of his patched coat and rusty beaver, and the curious fashion of his 
tow-cloth trousers, could she find it in her heart to outwalk him. 

Hawthorne. 

This sentence consists of three coordinate clauses, each independent of the 
others. These are joined by the coordinate conjunctions and, nor. The first 
and the third clause are simple, but the second clause is complex. Hence the 
whole forms one compound complex sentence. 

The complex clause consists of two clauses, the second of which is subor- 
dinate to the first. Taken as a whole, however, this complex clause is mani- 
festly coordinate with the two simple clauses, since the three form a series 
joined by coordinate conjunctions. 

515. Further examples of compound complex sentences are : — 

1. The people drove out King Athamas, because he had killed his 
child ; and he roamed about in his misery, till he came to the Oracle 
in Delphi. — Kingsley. 

2. Society is the stage on which manners are shown ; novels are their 
literature. — Emerson. 

3. We keep no bees, but if I lived in a hive I should scarcely have 
more of their music. — Cowper. 

4. The same river ran on as it had run on before, but the cheerful faces 
that had once been reflected in its stream had passed away. — Froude. 

5. There are some laws and customs in this empire very peculiar ; and 
if they were not so directly contrary to those of my own dear country, 
I should be tempted to say a little in their justification. — Swift. 

6. Here they arrived about noon, and Joseph proposed to Adams that 
they should rest awhile in this delightful place. — Fielding. 

7. I never saw a busier person than she seemed to be; yet it was 
difficult to say what she did. — C. Bronte. 

1 Instead of compound complex, the term complex compound is often used. 
The terms are synonymous, both meaning "compound in general structure, 
but complex in one or more members." 



216 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES 

8. Malaga possessed a brave and numerous garrison, and the com- 
mon people were active, hardy, and resolute ; but the city was rich 
and commercial, and under the habitual control of opulent merchants, 
who dreaded the ruinous consequences of a siege. — Irving. - 

9. The Spaniards were not to be taken by surprise ; and, before the 
barbarian horde had come within their lines, they opened such a deadly 
fire from their heavy guns, supported by the musketry and crossbows, 
that the assailants were compelled to fall back slowly, but fearfully 
mangled, to their former position. — Prescott. 

10. Her cheeks were as pale as marble, but of a cold, unhealthy, ashen 
white ; and my heart ached to think that they had been bleached, most 
probably, by bitter and continual tears. — Hood. 

11. The hawk, having in spiral motion achieved the upper flight, fell 
like a thunderbolt on the raven, stunned him with the blow, clutched him 
in his talons, folded him in his wings, and, the hawk undermost, they 
tumbled down like a black ball, till within a short distance from the 
earth. — Trelawny. 

In this sentence they were is understood after till. 



VARIETIES OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 

516. A complex sentence may be expanded either by com- 
pounding the main clause, or by increasing the number of sub- 
ordinate clauses. Both methods may be used in the same 
sentence. 

517. The independent (main) clause of a complex sentence may be 
compound. 

When they saw the ship, they shouted for joy and some of them burst 
into tears. 

As they turned down from the knoll to rejoin their comrades, the sun 
dipped and disappeared, and the woods fell instantly into the gravity and 
grayness of the early night. — Stevenson. 

The eye of the young monarch kindled and his dark cheek flushed with 
sudden anger, as he listened to proposals so humiliating. — Prescott. 

Sharpe was so hated in Scotland during his life, and his death won him 
so many friends, or pitying observers, that it is not easy to write of him 
without prejudice or favor. — A. Lang. 

As has been the case with many another good fellow of his nation, his 
life was tracked and his substance wasted by crowds of hungry beggars and 
lazy dependents. — Thackeray. 



VARIETIES OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 217 

Note that the subordinate clause depends on the compound 
main clause, not upon either of its members. 

Thus, in the first example, the subordinate clause (when they saw the 
ship) depends upon the compound main clause, they shouted for joy and 
some of them burst into tears. It is an adverbial modifier of both shouted 
and burst. 

518. Though a complex sentence can have but one (simple 
or compound) main clause, there is, in theory, no limit to the 
number of subordinate clauses. 

519. Subordinate clauses may be attached to the main clause 
(1) as separate modifiers or complements ; (2) in a coordinate series 
of clauses, all in the same construction, and forming one com- 
pound clause ; (3) in a series of successively subordinate clauses, 
forming one complex clause. 

520. Two or more subordinate clauses may be attached to the main 
clause separately, each as a distinct modifier or complement. 

The bridge, which had been weakened by the ice, fell with a crash while 
the locomotive was crossing it. [The first subordinate clause is an adjective 
modifier of bridge; the second is an adverbial modifier of fell.] 

The architect who drew the plans says that the house will cost ten thou- 
sand dollars. [The first subordinate clause is an adjective modifier of 
architect; the second is a complement, being the object of says.] 

Isabella, whom every incident was sufficient to dismay, hesitated whether 
she should proceed. — H. Walpole. 

As the boat drew nearer to the city, the coast which the traveller had 
just left sank behind him into one long, low, sad-colored line. — Ruskin. 

Those dangers which, in the vigor of youth, we had learned to despise, 
assume new terrors as we grow old. — Goldsmith. 

When Earmer Oak smiled, the corners of his mouth spread till they 
were within an unimportant distance of his ears. — Hardy. 

As Florian Deleal walked, one hot afternoon, he overtook by the way- 
side a poor aged man, and, as he seemed weary with the road, helped him 
on with the burden which he carried, a certain distance. — Pater. 

While Joe was absent on this errand, the elder Willet and his three 
companions continued to smoke with profound gravity and in a deep 
silence, each having his eyes fixed on a huge copper boiler that was sus- 
pended over the fire. — Dickens. 



218 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES 

521. Two or more subordinate clauses in the same construction, 
forming one compound clause, may be attached to the main clause as a 
modifier or complement. 

1. The truth was that Leonard had overslept, that he had missed the 
train, and that he had failed to keep his appointment. 

2. The guide told us that the road was impassable, that the river was 
in flood, and that the bridge had been swept away. 

3. Ellis, whose pockets were empty and whose courage was at a low ebb, 
stared dismally at the passing crowd. 

4. Before the battle was over and while the result was still in doubt, the 
general ordered a retreat. 

5. After we had arrived at the hotel, but before we had engaged our rooms, 
we received an invitation to stay at the castle. 

6. My first thought was, that all was lost, and that my only chance for 
executing a retreat was to sacrifice my baggage. — De Quincey. 

7. The author fully convinced his readers that they were a race of 
cowards and scoundrels, that nothing could save them, that they were on the 
point of being enslaved by their enemies, and that they richly deserved their 
fate. — Macaulay. 

In the first and second examples, three coordinate noun 
clauses are joined to make one compound clause, which is used 
as a complement, — as a predicate nominative in the first sen- 
tence, as the direct object of told in the second. 

In the third example, a compound adjective clause modifies 
Ellis. In the fourth and fifth, a compound adverbial clause 
modifies the predicate verb (ordered, received). In the seventh, 
four that-cl&uses unite in one compound clause. 

522. Two or more successively subordinate clauses, forming one 
complex clause, may be joined to the main clause as a modifier or 
complement. 

In such a series, the first subordinate clause is attached di- 
rectly to the main clause, the second is subordinate to the first, 
the third to the second, and so on in succession. 

In the course of my travels, I met a good-natured old gentleman, 
(a) who was born in the village (6) where my parents lived (c) before they 
came to America. 



VAEIETIES OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 219 

Here gentleman (a complement in the main clause) is modi- 
fied by the adjective clause who was born in the village (a). 
Village, in clause a ? is modified by the adjective clause where 
my parents lived (b). Lived, the predicate verb of clause b, is 
modified by the adverbial clause before they came to America (c). 
Thus it appears that a is subordinate to the main clause, and 
that b, in turn, is subordinate to a, and e to b. In other words, 
the three clauses (a, b, c) are united to make one complex clause, 
— who was born in the village where my parents lived before they 
came to America. This clause, taken as a whole, serves as an 
adjective modifier describing gentleman. 

523. Further examples of the successive subordination of one 
clause to another may be seen in the following sentences : — 

I have passed my latter years in this city, where I am frequently seen 
in public places, though there are not above half-a-dozen of my select friends 
that know me. — Addison. 

In this manner they advanced by moonlight till they came within view 
of the two towering rocks that form a kind of portal to the valley, at the ex- 
tremity of which rose the vast ruins of Istakar. — Beckford. 

The young fellow uttered this with an accent and a look so perfectly 
in tune to a feeling heart, that I instantly made a vow I would give him a 
four-and-twenty sous piece, when I got to Marseilles. — Sterne. [The con- 
junction that is omitted before I would (§ 388).] 

Three years had scarcely elapsed before the sons of Constantine seemed 
impatient to convince mankind that they were incapable of contenting them- 
selves with the dominions which they were unqualified to govern. — Gibbon. 

Mr. Lewis sent me an account of Dr. Arbuthnot's illness, which is a 
very sensible affliction to me, who, by living so long out of the world, have lost 
that hardness of heart contracted by years and general conversation. — Swift. 

Note. The method of forming complex clauses by successive subordination, 
if overworked, produces long, straggling, shapeless sentences, as in the follow- 
ing example from Borrow: — "I scouted the idea that Slingsby would have 
stolen this blacksmith's gear ; fori had the highest opinion of his honesty, 
which opinion I still retain at the present day, which is upwards of twenty 
years from the time of which I am speaking, during the whole of which period 
I have neither seen the poor fellow nor received any intelligence of him." A 
famous instance of the use of this structure for comic effect is " The House 
that Jack Built." 



220 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES 

SPECIAL COMPLICATIONS 

524. The processes of coordination and subordination (§§ 514- 

523) may be so utilized in one and the same sentence as to 
produce a very complicated structure. 

Examples of such sentences are given below, for reference 
(§§ 525-526). Their structure, however elaborate, is always 
either complex or compound complex. 



I. IN COMPLEX SENTENCES 

525. The following sentences are complex. They contain 
either compound or complex clauses, or both. 

1. They preferred the silver with which they were familiar, and 
which they were constantly passing about from hand to hand, to the 
gold which they had never before seen, and with the value of which they 
were unacquainted. — Macaulay. 

The main clause of this complex sentence is they preferred the silver to the 
gold. To this are separately attached (§ 520) two adjective clauses, both com- 
pound : (1) with which . . . hand, modifying silver ; (2) which they had . . . unac- 
quainted, modifying gold. 

2. All London crowded to shout and laugh round the gibbet where 
hung the rotting remains of a prince who had made England the dread 
of the world, who had been the chief founder of her maritime greatness 
and of her colonial empire, who had conquered Scotland and Ireland, 
who had humbled Holland and Spain. — Macaulay. 

The sentence is complex. The main clause is all London crowded to shout 
and laugh round the gibbet. The rest of the sentence (where . . . Spain) forms 
one long complex adjective clause, modifying gibbet. In this complex clause, 
the first clause (where . . . prince) has dependent on it a compound adjective 
clause (modifying prince), made up of four coordinate clauses, each beginning 
with who. The subordination of this compound clause to that which precedes 
(where . . . prince) produces the long complex subordinate clause where . . . 
Spain. 

3. As we cannot at present get Mr. Joseph out of the inn, we shall 
leave him in it, and carry our reader on after Parson Adams, who, his 
mind being perfectly at ease, fell into a contemplation on a passage in 
JEschylus, which entertained him for three miles together, without suffer- 
ing him once to reflect on his fellow-traveller. — Fielding. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES 221 

In this complex sentence, two subordinate clauses are separately attached 
to the main clause: (1) the adverbial clause as . . . inn; (2) the adjective 
clause who . . .fellow-traveller. This latter clause is complex, since it con- 
tains the adjective clause which . . .fellow-traveller, dependent on who . . . 
JEschylus, and modifying passage. 

4. As I sit by my window this summer afternoon, hawks are circling 
about my clearing ; the tantivy of wild pigeons, flying by twos and threes 
athwart my view, or perching restlessly on the white pine boughs behind 
my house, gives a voice to the air ; a fishhawk dimples the glassy surface 
of the pond and brings up a fish ; a mink steals out of the marsh before 
my door and seizes a frog by the shore ; the sedge is bending under the 
weight of the reed-birds flitting hither and hither ; and for the last half 
hour I have heard the rattle of railroad cars, now dying away and then 
rev: ving like the beat of a partridge, conveying travellers from Boston to 
the country. —Thoreau. 

This sentence is complex. Its main clause is compound, consisting of a series 
of six coordinate simple clauses. The whole of this long compound main clause 
is modified by the adverbial clause with which the sentence begins (as . . . 
afternoon). 

5. That they had sprung from obscurity, that they had acquired great 
wealth, that they exhibited it insolently, that they spent it extravagantly, 
that they raised the price of everything in their neighborhood, from fresh 
eggs to rotten boroughs ; that their liveries outshone those of dukes, that 
their coaches were finer than that of the Lord Mayor, that the examples 
of their large and ill-governed households corrupted half the servants in 
the country ; that some of them, with all their magnificence, could not 
catch the tone of good society, but in spite of the stud and the crowd of 
menials, of the plate and the Dresden china, of the venison and the 
Burgundy, were still low men, — these were things which excited, both 
in the class from which they had sprung, and in that into which they 
attempted to force themselves, that bitter aversion which is the effect of 
mingled envy and contempt. — Macaulay. 

This complex sentence, though very long, is perfectly easy to follow. It 
begins with a long compound noun clause (consisting of nine coordinate that- 
clauses). This would be the subject of the main predicate verb were, but for 
the fact that the pronoun these is inserted to act as the subject (referring back 
to the compound noun clause and summing it up in a single word). To the 
complement things is attached the adjective clause which excited . . . contempt. 
This clause is complex, for it contains three adjective clauses, (1) from which 
they had sprung (modifying class), (2) into which . . . themselves (modifying 
that), and (3) which is . . . contempt (modifying aversion) . All three are sepa- 
rately attached to the clause on which they depend, which excited that bitter 
aversion. Thus all that portion of the sentence which follows things forms 
one complex clause, modifying that noun. 



222 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES 

6. That I may avoid the imputation of throwing out, even privately, 
any loose, random imputations against the public conduct of a gentleman 
for whom I once entertained a very warm affection, and whose abilities 
I regard with the greatest admiration, I will put down, distinctly and 
articulately, some of the matters of objection which I feel to his late 
doctrines and proceedings, trusting that I shall be able to demonstrate 
to the friends whose good opinion I would still cultivate, that not levity, 
nor caprice, nor less defensible motives, but that very grave reasons, 
influence my judgment. — Burke. 

This is a fine example of a long, but well-constructed complex sentence, 
The main clause is I will put down, distinctly and articulately, some of the 
matters of objection. Upon this simple clause, everything else in the sentence 
depends in one way or another. 



II. IN COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES 

526. Any complex sentence, however elaborate, may be 
used as one of the coordinate complex clauses that make up a 
compound complex sentence. 

1. While the king was treated at this rude rate, Cromwell, with his 
army, was in Scotland, obstructing the motions that were making in his 
favor ; but on the approach of the Scots, who were much superior in 
number, he was forced to retire towards Dunbar, where his ships and 
provisions lay. — Burnet. 

In this compound complex sentence, both coordinate clauses are complex. In 
each, the main clause has two subordinate clauses attached to it separately 
(§520). 

2. They had seen me cut the cables, and thought my design was only 
to let the ships run adrift, or fall foul on each other ; but when they 
perceived the whole fleet moving in order, and saw me pulling at the 
end, they set up such a scream of grief and despair as it is almost im- 
possible to describe or conceive. — Swift. 

In this compound complex sentence, both of the two coordinate clauses are 
complex. The first contains the noun clause [that] my design . . . each other, 
used as the object of thought. The second contains two subordinate clauses, 
separately attached to the main clause (they set . . . despair). For the infinitive 
cut, see § 322. The infinitive to let is used as a predicate nominative (§ 491) ; 
it has as its object the infinitive clause the ships . . . each other, containing 
two infinitives, run and fall (§ 325) . 

3. While things went on quietly, while there was no opposition, while 
everything was given by the favor of a small ruling junto, Fox had a 



COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES 223 

decided advantage over Pitt ; but when dangerous times came, when 
Europe was convulsed with war, when Parliament was broken up into 
factions, when the public mind was violently excited, the favorite of the 
people rose to supreme power. — Macaula y. 

This compound complex sentence consists of two complex clauses, joined by 
the coordinate conjunction but. In each of these, the subordinate clause is 
compound (§ 521) , consisting of several coordinate adverbial clauses intro- 
duced by relative adverbs (ivhile in the first, when in the second) . 

4. The clear and agreeable language of his despatches had early 
attracted the notice of his employers ; and before the Peace of Breda 
he had, at the request of Arlington, published a pamphlet on the war, of 
which nothing is now known, except that it had some vogue at the time, 
and that Charles, not a contemptible judge, pronounced it to be very 
well written. — Macattlay. 

In this compound complex sentence, the first coordinate clause is simple, the 
second is complex. In the second, the adjective clause of ivhich nothing is 
knoivn has dependent on it the group of words except . . . well written, con- 
sisting of the preposition except and its object (the compound noun clause, 
that . . . time, and that . . . well written). This group serves as an adjec- 
tive modifier of the noun nothing. The whole passage of which . . . well 
written forms a complex adjective clause, modifying pamphlet. It to be very 
well loritten is a complement, being an infinitive clause used as the object of 
pronounced (§ 325). 



224 ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 

CHAPTER VIII 
ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 

527. Good usage does not demand that all sentences shall 
be absolutely complete. It often allows (and sometimes re- 
quires) the omission of words that, though necessary to the 
construction, are so easily supplied by the mind that it would 
be mere waste of time to utter them. 

528. The omission of a word or words necessary to the grammatical 
completeness of a clause or sentence is called ellipsis. 

A clause or sentence that shows ellipsis is said to be elliptical. 

Ellipsis is a Greek word meaning " omission." 

In the following examples the omitted words are supplied 
in brackets. 

[I] thank you. 

[I] pray do not [you] move. 

[You] pass me that book. 

Her hair is light, her eyes [are] dark blue. 

Some of the strangers spoke French, others [spoke] Spanish. 

Some of the patriots were armed with old flintlocks, others [were 

armed] with swords, still others [were armed] with pitchforks. 
When [he was] a youth, he travelled in the East. 
Though [he is] timid, he is no coward. 
They were amused, though [they were] somewhat vexed. 
While [we were] drifting downstream, we grounded on a sand bar. 
If [it is] possible, send me word to-night. 
You shall have the money this week, if [it is] necessary. 
They marched slowly as if [they were] worn out. 
Why [are] these tears ? 
Why [are you] so dejected ? 

He was ten years of age, his brother [was] eight [years of age]. 
I have more confidence in James than [I have] in Edmund. 
Mary is younger than George [is young]. 
Tom likes you better than [he likes] me. 
You like him better than I do [like him]. 



ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 225 

I like him better than Charles does [like him] . 

This racket is not so heavy as that [is heavy] . 

You are not so old as I [am old] . 

Peace [be] to his memory ! 

This is the only pencil [that] I have. 

Is that the boy [whom] you hired yesterday ? 

They say [that] you are going to Europe soon. 

529. The examples in § 528 show that most cases of ellipsis 
fall under two heads : 

1. To avoid repetition, words are often omitted in one part 
of the sentence when they occur in another part. 

2. Pronouns, the conjunction that, and some forms of the 
verb is, are often omitted when they are readily supplied. 

Under the second head come (1) the ellipsis of the subject 
(thou or you) in imperative sentences (§ 268), (2) that of rela- 
tive pronouns in the objective case (§ 151), (3) that of is, arc r 
etc. (with the subject pronoun) in subordinate clauses intro- 
duced by when, though, if, and the like (§§ 397, 399, 417). 

Note. The so-called "telegraphic style" omits I with any verb or with 
all verbs. It should be confined to telegrams, where space is money. 

530. Adverbs indicating direction (like forward, back) are 
often used without a verb in imperative sentences. 

Forward, brave companions ! 
Down on your knees ! 
Up, guards, and at them ! 

Note. In older English, the omission of the verb of motion was common, 
even in sentences not imperative, as in the following examples from Julius 
Caesar: — "We'll along ourselves, and meet them"; "Shall we on, and not 
depend on you ? " 

531. The ellipsis of the subordinate conjunction that is very 
common, especially in indirect discourse (§§ 388, 433). 

I know [that] you are my friend. 
Jack said [that] the boat had sunk. 
He told me [that] he was sorry. 



226 ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 

532. Many constructions, originally elliptical, have become 
established idioms in which no ellipsis is felt. In such cases 
it is usually better to take the sentence as it stands, and not 
to supply the omitted words. 

Thus, in "He eats as if he were famished 1 '' the italicized words are 
property treated as a subordinate clause modifying eats and introduced 
by the compound conjunction as if. Yet in strictness this construction is 
an ellipsis for "He eats as [he would eat] if he were famished." 

533. Various ellipses are illustrated in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. Although in a friendly country, they marched always as if in a 
land of enemies. 

2. The aspect of the country was as wild and dreary as the climate. 

3. Do not serious and earnest men discuss Hamlet as they would 
Cromwell or Lincoln? — Lowell. 

4. Not so with the others. 

5. Though rather shy and distrustful of this new acquaintance, Rip 
complied with his usual alacrity. 

6. Arras was famed for its rich tapestries, Brussels for its carpets, 
Cambrai for its fine cambric, Lisle for its thread and the fabrics woven 
from it. 

7. Every day brings its task, which, if neglected, is doubled on the 
morrow. 

8. It is not easy to recover an art when once lost. 

9. I wish you would go down with me to ISTewstead. 

10. The men are all soldiers, and war and the chase their sole 
occupation. 

11. While in this state of irresolution, she was startled by a low knock. 

12. The house was tall, the skylight small and dirty, the day blind 
with fog. 

13. I little thought you would have deserted me. 

14. He is the best Oriental scholar I know. 

15. Cromwell was evidently laying, though in an irregular manner, 
the foundations of an admirable system. 

16. He was a foot taller than I. 

17. This concerns you rather than me. 

18. My father loved Sir Rowland as his soul. 



EXERCISES 

EXERCISE 1 

(§§ 1-5, pp. 1-3) 

1, Tell whether each of the following sentences is declara- 
tive, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. If a sentence is 
both declarative and exclamatory, mention the fact. Mention 
the subject and the predicate of each sentence. Xote all in- 
stances of the inverted order (§5). 

1. You need not answer this letter. 2. Many surmises of evil alarm 
the hearts of the people. — Longfellow. 3. Here I am again in the 
land of old Bunyan. 4. Me this uncharter'd freedom tires. — Words- 
worth. 5. Twilight's soft dews steal o'er the village green. — Rogers. 
6. Were there many robbers in the band? 7. How will posterity the 
deed proclaim ! — Byron. 8. At dawn the towers of Stirling rang. — 
Scott. 9. You cannot recall the spoken word. — Emerson. 10. The 
boughs over my head seemed shadowy with solemn thoughts as well as 
with rustling leaves. — Hawthorne. 11. So you don't like Raphael! 
12. All around lay a frightful wilderness. 13. Why does the sea moan 
evermore ? — Rossetti . 14. What lonely straggler looks along the wave ? 
— Byron. 15. Off went his wig ! 16. For some minutes he continued 
to scrutinize the drawing minutely. 17. Our strength grows out of our 
weakness. — Emerson. 18. Rudely carved was the porch. 19. What 
hopes the prince to gain by Lacy's death ? 20. Trust thyself. 

21. The rest of the men were morose and silent. 22. Here are the 
ruins of the emperor's palace. 23. Now rumbles along the carriage of 
some magnate of the city. 24. Wild was the life we led. 25. How 
poor, and dull, and sleepy, and squalid it seemed ! 26. Built are the house 
and the barn. 27. With what tenderness he sings ! 28. Marked ye the 
younger stranger's eye ? 29. One or two idlers, of forbidding aspect, 
hung about in the murky gaslight. 30. Several mountains crowned 
with snow shone brilliantly in the distance. 31. Follow me through 
this passage. 32. Stop me not at your peril. 33. Carry thou this scroll 
to the castle. 

227 



228 EXERCISES 

2. Write ten interrogative sentences concerning each topic. 
Reply in declarative sentences. 

(1) The American Revolution ; (2) the Pilgrim Fathers ; (3) the history 
of your own state ; (4) the government of the United States ; (5) hygiene ; 
(6) the manufactures (or other industries) of your town or city. 

3. Write ten imperative sentences, each giving an order 
concerning — 

(1) the playing of a game ; (2) the building or sailing of a boat ; (3) 
the care of the health ; (4) the manufacture of some article of common 
use ; (5) the writing of a business letter. 

4. Write ten exclamatory sentences. Tell whether each is 
declarative, interrogative, or imperative. 



EXERCISE 2 

(§§ 6-25, pp. 3-11) 
1. Tell the parts of speech (including verb-phrases). 

I. The rain pattered upon the roof and the sky gloomed through the 
dusty garret windows. — Hawthorne. 2. Make yourself necessary to 
somebody. — Emerson. 3. I have a regard for every man on board that 
ship, from the captain down to the crew. 4. ff An artist," said Michael 
Angelo, " must have his measuring tools not in the hand, but in the 
eye." — Emerson. 5. Time had wintered o'er his locks. 6. Must we in 
all things look for the how, and the why, and the wherefore ? 7. Power 
dwells with cheerfulness. — Emerson. 8. What hurrahs rang out I 
9. He sneaked about with a gallows air. 10. So ! you see things go on 
as when you were with us. 

II. Blgby and his brother hirelings frightened them with hideous fables 
and ugly words. — Disraeli. 12. These are prize peaches. 13. Ha ha ! 
how vilely doth this cynic rhyme ! 14. Antony, beg not your death 
of us. 45. -Wordsworth was praised to me 4 in Westmoreland because 
he afforded to his .country neighbors an example of a modest household 
where comfort and culture were secured without display. 

16. Shake hands with this knot of good fellows. 17. He had been 
deserted by the Moderates. 18. The moderate Liberals held a meeting 
very early in the struggle. 19. After a dreadful night of anxiety, per- 
plexity, and peril, the darkness, which I thought had lasted an eternity, 
slowly disappeared. — TrelawnV. 






INFINITIVES AND PAETICIPLES 229 

2. Use the following words in sentences of your own : — 

Sleep (noun, verb) ; dry (adjective, verb, noun) ; very (adverb, adjective) ; 
express (noun, verb, adjective) ; bellow (verb, noun) ; American (adjective, 
noun) ; future (adjective, noun) ; to-morrow (noun, adverb) ; flower (noun, 
verb) ;\spvereign (noun, adjective) ; summer (noun, verb, adjective) ; double 
(adjective, adverb, verb) ; well (adjective, adverb) ; fast (adjective, adverb^ 
noun, verb) ; content (noun, adjective, verb) ; last (adjective, adverb, verb, 
noun) ; down (adverb, preposition) ; for (preposition, conjunction) ; down^ . 
r right (adjective, adverb) ; home (noun, adjective, adverb) ; lower (adjective, 
( adverb, verb) ; iron (noun, adjective, verb) ; off (adverb, preposition, adjective) ; 
up (adverb, preposition) ; high (adjective, adverb, noun) ; except (verb, prep- 
osition) ; inside (adjective, adverb, preposition, noun) ; ^foast, (noun, adjective^ , 
preposition) ; what (adjective, pronoun, interjection) ; foUnd (noun, adjec- 
tive, verb, prepositiort^qdverb) ; sound (noun, verb, adjective, adverb) ; black 
(noun, verb, adjective) ; all (noun, adjective, adverb) ; open (noun, adjective, 
verb) ; while (noun, verb) . 

EXERCISE 3 

(§§ 26-^3, pp. 11-13) 
s 
Point out the infinitives and the participles. Tell when they 

occur in verb-phrases. Use them in sentences. 

J* 

1. I did wrong to smile. 2. Luttrell adjured me with mock pathos 
to spare his blushes. 3. I begged my friend Sir Roger to go with 
me into her hovel. 4. I was wonderfully pleased to see the workings 
of instinct in a hen followed by a brood of ducks. 5. A man's first 
care should be to avoid the reproaches of his own heart. — Addison. 

6. I was highly entertained to see the gentlemen of the county gath- 
ering about my old friend, and striving who should compliment him most. 

7. He was let loose among the woods as soon as he was able to ride on 
horseback. 8. Plutarch says very finely that a man should not allow 
himself to hate even his enemies. 9. It gives me a serious concern to 
see such a spirit of dissension in the country. 

10. It was his intention to remain there for two or three days. 11. 
Every part of every carriage had been cleaned, every horse had been 
groomed. 12. Liberated from the embarrassments of the city, and 
issuing into the broad uncrowded avenues of the northern suburbs, 
we soon begin to enter upon our natural pace of ten miles an hour. 

13. The beggar, rearing himself against the wall, forgets his lameness. 

14. Three miles beyond Barnet, we see approaching another private 
carriage. 15. We saw many lights moving about as we drew near. 



230 EXERCISES 

EXERCISE 4 

(§§ 34-39, pp. 13-15) 

1. Mention the simple subject and the simple predicate of 
each sentence in Exercise 1 (p. 227). Tell whether the sim- 
ple subject is a noun or a pronoun, and whether the simple 
predicate is a verb or a verb-phrase. 

2. Study in the same way your own sentences in Exercise 1. 

3. Divide each sentence into the complete subject and the 
complete predicate. If the sentence has a compound subject, 
mention the substantives that compose it ; if the sentence has 
a compound predicate, mention the verbs (or verb-phrases). 

1. The Queen and Prince Albert came to London from Windsor on 
Saturday morning. 2. You and Lockhart must not abandon the good 
cause. 3. I saw that he was weak, and took advantage of a pause to 
remind him not to forget his drive. 4. Two or three of my English 
biographies have something of the same historical character. 5. Lord 
Grey, Clanricarde, Labouchere, Vernon Smith, and Seymour will fill up 
the places. 6. Every change of season, every change of weather, indeed, 
every hour of the day, produces some change in the magical hues and 
shapes of these mountains. — Irving. 7. He looked round, and could 
see nothing but a crow winging its solitary flight across the mountain. 
8. They suddenly desisted from their play and stared at him. 9. The 
sea flashes along the pebbly margin of its silver beach, forming a thou- 
sand little bays and inlets, or comes tumbling in among the cliffs of a 
rock-bound coast, and beats against its massive barriers with a distant, 
hollow, continual roar. — Longfellow. 

10. A wide gateway ushered the traveller into the interior of the build- 
ing, and conducted him to a low-roofed apartment, paved with round 
stones. 11. The strange visitant gruffly saluted me, and, after making 
several ineffectual efforts to urge his horse in at the door, dismounted 
and followed me into the room. — Whittier. 12. The foolish and the 
dead alone never change their opinion. — Lowell. 13. They will slink 
into their kennels in disgrace, or perchance run wild and strike a league 
with the wolf and the fox. — Thoreau. 14. Strong will and keen per- 
ception overpower old manners and create new. — Emerson. 15. Neither 
Aristotle, nor Leibnitz, nor Junius, nor Champollion has set down the 
grammar-rules of this dialect. 16. His mantle and hood were of the best 
Flanders cloth, and fell in ample and not ungraceful folds. 17. A deep 
fosse or ditch was drawn round the whole building. 



PHEASES 231 

EXERCISE 5 

(§§ 40-42, p. 16) 

1. Point out the noun-phrases, verb-phrases, adjective phrases, 
and adverbial phrases. Which of these phrases are preposi- 
tional ? 

1. Sometimes he spent hours together in the great libraries of Paris. 
2. He assumed the garb of a common sailor, and in this disguise reached 
the Dutch coast in safety. 3. Some of the frigate's men were still 
endeavoring to escape. 4. Was Milton rich or at his ease when he 
composed " Paradise Lost 1 '? 5. It was a cold-blooded exhibition of 
marksmanship, (§) He then continuedyon to the place of rendezvous at 
Speedwell's Iron Works on Troublesome Creek. — Irving. 7. The gates 
of Amsterdam had been barred against 'him. 8. They heard his con- 
fession with suspicion and disdain. 9. The stagecoach always drew up 
before the door of the cottage. 10. The wind moaned through the silent 
streets. 11. The clouds are scudding across the moon. 12. Steele had 
known Addison from childhood. 13. A broad ray of light fell into the 
garret. — Dickens. 14. The fate of his insulted and broken-hearted 
brother still rankled in his mind. 15. All day with fruitless strife they 
toiled. — Scott. 

2. Fill each blank with a single word. Substitute for the 
word a phrase with the same meaning. Mention in each in- 
stance (1) the part of speech, (2) the kind of phrase. 

1. He spoke to me . 

2. The grounds were shut in by a high wall. 

3. The fire engine past. 

4. The three girls were laughing . 

5. The poor child looked at the toys. 

6. Harold the bunch of grapes. 

7. The proprietor is a man. 

8. The archbishop placed upon the king's head a crown. 

9. The book which I hold in my hand is . 

10. The ordered the Conqueror to open fire. 

11. The enemy retreated . 

12. The' rain heavily all day. 

13. The rain came down all day. 

14. The is in his office. 

15. A boy came to the door. 

16. My brother is president of . 



232 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 6 

(§§ 43-51, pp. 16-21) 

1. Tell whether each sentence ^is^simple, comjaouxud, or com- 
plex. If the sentence is compound, divide it into its independ- 
ent clauses, and mention the simple subject (noun or pronoun) 
and the simple predicate (verb or verb-phrase) of each clause. 

If the sentence is complex, divide it into the main (inde- 
pendent) and the subordinate clause, and tell whether the lat- 
ter is used as an adjective or as an adverb. 

1. The great gate slowly opened, and a steward and several serving- 
men appeared. 2. The victors set fire to the wigwams and the fort ; the 
whole was soon in a blaze ; many of the old men, the women, and the 
children perished in the flames. 3. Night closed in, bnt still no guest 
arrived. 4. The black waves rolled by them, and the light at the horizon 
began to fade, and the stars were coming out one by one. — William 
Black. 5. Mr. Mckleby closed an account book which lay on his desk. 
6. By ceaseless action all that is subsists. — Cowper. -7. When the 
morning broke, the Moorish army had vanished. 8. At midnight, when 
the town was hushed in sleep, they all went quietly on board. 9. For- 
tune had' cast him into a cavern, and he was groping darkly round. 

10. I paced the deserted chambers where he had composed his poem. 

11. I strove to speak ; my voice utterly failed me. 12. The only avenue 
by which the town could be easily approached, was protected by a stone 
wall more than twenty feet high and of great thickness. 

13. The night fell tempestuous and wild, and no vestige of the hapless 
sloop was ever after seen. 14. The simple majesty of this anecclote can 
gain nothing from any comment which we might make on it. 15. Raleigh 
speaks the language of the heart of his country when he urges the English 
statesmen to colonize Guiana. — Froude. 16. Men, in their youth, go 
to push their fortune in the colony ; they succeed ; they acquire property 
there ; they return to their native land ; they continue to draw the 
income from their colonial estates. — Brougham. 17. The moonlight 
glistened upon traces of the gilding which had once covered both rider 
and steed. 18. While this brief conversation passed, Donatello had 
once or twice glanced aside with a watchful air. 19. Pray for us, 
Hilda ; we need it. 

2. Divide the compound complex sentences into their coordi- 
nate clauses. Tell whether each of these clauses, when stand- 
ing alone, is a simple or a complex sentence. 



NOUNS 233 

1. It would be dark before he could reach the village, and he heaved 
a heavy sigh when he thought of encountering the terrors of Dame Van 
Winkle. 2. Language gradually varies, and with it fade away the writ- 
ings of authors who have lived their allotted time. 3. The tallest and 
handsomest men whom England could produce guarded the passage 
from the palace gate to the river-side, and all seemed in readiness for 
the queen's coming forth, although the hour was yet so early. 4. Edward 
the Confessor died on the fifth of January, 1066, and on the following 
day an assembly of the thanes and prelates present in London, and of 
the citizens of the metropolis, declared that Harold should be their king. 



EXERCISE 7 
(§§ 54-64, pp. 27-30) 

1. Point out all the common nouns and all the proper nouns. 
Mention all the examples of personification. 

1. There Guilt his anxious revel kept. — Scott. 2. The first vessel 
we fell in with was a schooner, which, after a long chase, we made out 
to be an American. 3. You will be sauntering in St. Peter's perhaps, 
or standing on the Capitol while the sun sets. 4. I am very deep in my 
Aristophanes. 5. I saw a most lovely Sir Joshua at Christie's a week 
jago. — Fitz Gerald. 6. I hear there is scarce a village in England 
that has not a Moll White in it. — Addison. 7. Such a spirit is Liberty. 
At times she takes the form of a hateful reptile. She grovels, she hisses, 
she stings. But woe to those who in disgust shall venture to crush her ! 

— Macaulay. 8. Eough Wulfstane trimmed his shafts and bow. — 
Scott. 9. To-day we have been a delightful drive through Ettrick 
Forest, and to the ruins of Newark — the hall of Newark, where the 
ladies bent their necks of snow to hear fr The Lay of the Last Minstrel." 

— Maria Edgeworth. 

10. The same waves wash the moles of the new-built Calif ornian 
towns, and lave the faded but still gorgeous skirts of Asiatic lands, older 
than Abraham ; while all between float milky-ways of coral isles, and 
low-lying, endless, unknown Archipelagoes and impenetrable Japans. — 
Melville. 11. The duchess said haughtily that she had done her best 
for the Esmonds. 12. To see with one's own eyes men and countries is 
better than reading all the books of travel in the world. — Thackeray. 

13. Defeat and mortification had only hardened the king's heart. 

14. Earth, Ocean, Air, beloved brotherhood ! — Shelley. 15. The 
iron tongue of St. Paul's has told twelve. 16. The Indians, bran- 
dishing their weapons, answered only with gestures of angry defiance. 



234 EXEECISES 

2. Point out all the abstract, all the collective, and all the 
compound nouns. 

1. The poet binds together by passion and knowledge the vast empire 
of human society. — Wordsworth. 2. The country is now showing 
symptoms of greenness and warmth. 3. When the public are gone, we 
at once put up the great iron shutters. 4. Washington returned to 
headquarters at Newbury. 5. The Brace's band moves swiftly on. — 
Scott. 6. He shall with speed to England. — Shakspere. 7. Soon 
were dismissed the courtly throng. — Scott. 8. Sickness, desertion, and 
the loss sustained at Guilford Courthouse had reduced his little army. 
9. A detachment was sent against them. 10. Never before this summer 
have the kingbirds, handsomest of flycatchers, built in my orchard. 
11. The young suddenly disperse on your approach, as if a whirlwind 
had swept them away. — Thoreau. 12. This lighthouse, known to our 
mariners as Cape Cod or Highland Light, is one of our f r primary seacoast 
lights." 13. We have some salt of our youth in us. — Shakspere. 
14. Thou hast nor youth nor age. — Shakspere. 

15. The passion for hunting had revived with Washington on return- 
ing to his old hunting grounds. 16. A circle there of merry listeners 
stand. — Byron. 17. The act of the Congress of Vienna remains the 
eternal monument of their diplomatic knowledge and political sagacity. 
— Disraeli. 18. Lee undertook the task with alacrity. 19. A row 
of surfboats and canoes lay along the beach. 20. The situation he had 
held as aide-de-camp to the commander-in-chief had given him an oppor- 
tunity of observing the course of affairs. 21. The ground was frozen to 
a great depth. 22. He was aware of his unpopularity. 23. The stern 
old war-gods shook their heads. — Emerson. 

24. Freckled nest eggs thou shalt see 
Hatching in the hawthorn tree. — Keats. 

25. Fair morn ascends, and sunny June has shed 
Ambrosial odors o'er the garden-bed, 

And wild bees seek the cherry's sweet perfume 

Or cluster round the full-blown apple-bloom. — Campbell. 

26. For in their looks divine 
The image of their glorious Maker shone, 

Truth, wisdom, sanctitude severe and pure. — Milton. 

27. Steer, helmsman, till you steer our way 

By stars beyond the line. — Campbell. 

28. Say I sent thee thither : 

I, that have neither pity, love, nor fear. — Shakspere. 



NOUNS 235 

EXERCISE 8 

(§§ 66-84, pp. 31-39) 

1. Make a list containing thirty nouns, ten in each of the 
three genders. Use each of these nouns in a sentence. 

2. Write ten sentences, each containing a noun of common 
gender. 

3. Write sentences containing the masculine forms corre« 
sponding to the feminine forms in this list, and the feminine 
forms corresponding to the masculine : — 

earl, abbess, schoolmaster, porter, hind, mare, ram, sire, witch, sultan, 
czar, widow, marquis, executor, salesman, tailor, hero, bride, songster, 
great-uncle, nephew, buck, horseman, bachelor, belle. 

4. Mention the gender and the number of each noun. Tell 
whether the gender is shown by the form, by the meaning, or 
by both. Whenever it is possible, give the plural of each 
noun that is singular, and the singular of each noun that is 
plural. 

1. Oft Music changed, but never ceased her tone. — Byron. 2. 
Grace Crawley was at this time living with the two Miss Prettymans. — 
Trollope. 3. The Catos and the Scipios of the village had gathered in 
front of the hotel. 4. This gunner was an excellent mathematician, a 
good scholar, and a complete sailor. — Defoe. 5. I was, in fact, in the 
chapel of the Knights Templars. — Irving. 6. The luckless culprit was 
brought in, forlorn and chapfallen, in the custody of gamekeepers, 
huntsmen, and whippers-in, and followed by a rabble rout of country 
clowns. — Irving. 7. The hare now came still nearer to the place 
where she was at first started. — Budgell. 8. The Fairfaxes were no 
longer at hand. — Irving. 9. All the peers and peeresses put on their 
coronets. 10. Time is no longer slow ; his sickle mows quickly in this 
age. — Disraeli. 11. Under the humblest roof, the commonest person 
in plain clothes sits there massive, cheerful, yet formidable, like the 
Egyptian colossi. — Emerson. 

12. Within forty-eight hours, hundreds of horse and foot came by 
various roads to the city. 13. The hart and hind wandered in a wilder- 
ness abounding in ferny coverts and green and stately trees. — Disraeli. 
14. The ship had received a great deal of damage, and it required some 
time to repair her. — Defoe. 15. When Mary, the nurse, returns with 



236 EXEECISES 

the little Miss Smiths from Master Brown's birthday party, she is nar- 
rowly questioned as to their behavior. 16. Of all our fleet, consisting 
of a hundred and fifty sail, scarce twelve appeared. — Smollett. 17. Hin- 
doos, Russians, Chinese, Spaniards, Portuguese, Englishmen, Frenchmen, 
Genoese, Neapolitans, Venetians, Greeks, Turks, descendants from all the 
builders of Babel, come to trade at Marseilles, sought the shade alike. — 
Dickens. 18. There lies the port ; the vessel puffs her sail. — Tennyson. 
19. I had desire to see the old family seat of the Lucys. — Irving. 

20. The Miss Lambs were the belles of little Britain. — Irving. 21. 
Lord Culloden at length appeared with his daughters, Ladies Elora and 
Grizell. — Disraeli. 22. Still his honied wealth Hymettus yields. — 
Byron. 23. Josephine has been made executrix of her father's estate. 
24. Georgette crouched by the fire, reading a wonderful tale of kings, 
princesses, enchanted castles, knights and ladies, monks and nuns, 
wizards and witches. 25. She was a vixen when she went to school. — 
Shakspere. 26. Keep a gamester from the dice and a good student 
from his book. — Shakspere. 27. They are sheep and calves which 
seek out assurance in that. — Shakspere. 28. A score of good ewes 
may be worth ten pounds. — Shakspere. 29. Let ay's seem no's and 
no's seem ay's. — Gay. 

30. She clasps a bright child on her upgathered knee ; 

It laughs at the lightning, it mocks the mixed thunder 
Of the air and the sea. — Shelley. 



EXERCISE 9 

(§§ 71-84, pp. 34-39) 

1. Write sentences in which the following words, letters, or 
figures are used in the plural number : — 

German, radius, lens, moose, wharf, index, piano, thesis, 4, 500, p, q, 
and, syllabus, staff, die, s, t, seraph, hero, stimulus, crisis, elf, heathen, 
brother-in-law, July, March, spoonful, memorandum, Miss Allen, Mas- 
ter Allen, Mr. Hayes, General Kaymond, Knight Templar, head (of 
cattle), animalcule, potato, valley, formula, penny, curriculum, dwarf, 
man-child. 

2. Write sentences in which the following nouns are used 
in the singular number : — 

strata, phenomena, alumnae, alumni, candelabra, species, cherubim, 
errata, bacteria, Japanese, beaux, vertebrae, Messrs., theses, oases. 



NOUNS 237 

EXERCISE 10 

(§ 88, pp. 41-42) 

Mention all the nouns that are in the nominative xjase, and 
give the construction (or syntax) of each, — as subject, predi--^ 
cate nominative, vocative (or nominative of direct address),^? 
^exclamatory nominative, ornfominative in apposition. 1 

1. A weary lot is thine, fair maid. — Scott. 2. At last, our small 
acquaintance, Ned Kiggins, trudged up the street, on his way to school. 

— Hawthorne. 3. The soil is in general a' moist and retentive clay. 
4. Humors alone were their guides through a wild and desolate country. 

— Longfellow. 5. Young man, have you challenged Charles the 
wrestler? — Shakspere. 6. Ralph was an Eton boy, and hence, being 
robust and shrewd, a swimmer and a cricketer. 7". Here Harold was 
received a welcome guest. — Scott. 8. The tall Highlander remained 
obdurate. 9. The beams and rafters, roughly hewn and with strips of 
bark still on them, and the rude masonry of the chimneys, made the 
garret look wild and uncivilized. 10. Deathlike the silence seemed. 
11. Sorrow and silence are strong, and patient endurance is godlike. — 
Longfellow. 12. Fly, fly, detested thoughts, forever from my view ! 

— Beattie. 13. Time must not be counted by calendars, but by sensa- 
tion, by thought. — Disraeli. 

14. This is the history of Charlotte Corday. 15. The nabobs soon 
became a most unpopular class of men. 16. Before him stretched the 
long, laborious road, dry, empty, and white. — Hardy. 17. With the / 
great mass of mankind, the test of integrity in a public man is consist 
tency. — Macaulay. 18. These are trifles, Mr. Premium. 19. My 
thanks are due to you for your trouble and care. 20. Here 's my great. 
uncle, Sir Bichard Bavelin. 21. Kowley, my old friend, I am sure you 
congratulate me. 22. David, you are a coward ! 23. Here come other 
Pyncheons, the whole tribe, in their half-a-dozen generations. 24. Uncle 
Venner, trundling a wheelbarrow, was the earliest person stirring in the 
neighborhood. 25. Up the chimney roared the fire, and brightened the 
room with its broad blaze. 26. Liberty ! freedom ! tyranny is dead ! — 
Shakspere. 27. The hostess's daughter, a plump Flanders lass, with 
long gold pendants in her ears, was at a side window. — Irving. 

28. Horses ! can these be horses that bound off with the action and 
gesture of leopards ? — De Quincey. 29. Peace ! silence ! Brutus 
speaks. 30. The rains, frosts, and tempests splinter the chalk above 
and the waves gnaw it away below. — Geikie. 

1 Or parse the nominatives according to the models in § 112. 



238 EXERCISES 

EXERCISE 11 

(§§ 89-96, pp. 43-47) 

1. Point out all the nouns in the possessive case, and parse 
them according to the model in § 112. 

1. James's parliament contained a most unusual proportion of new 
ministers. 2. I live in general quietly at my brother-in-law's in Norfolk 
(see § 96). 3. There is a small cottage of my father's close to the lawn 
gates. 4. We had found, in that day's heap of earth, about fifty pounds' 
weight of gold dust. — Defoe. 5. Much the most striking incident in 
Burns' s life is his journey to Edinburgh. 6. As to freaks like this of 
Miss Brooke's, Mrs. Cadwallader had no patience with them. — George 
Eliot. 7. Homeward they bore him through the dark woods' gloom. — 
Morris. 8. The eye travels down to Oxford's towers. — Arnold. 9. I 
obeyed all my brother's military commands with the utmost docility. 
10. Tellson's wanted not elbowroom, Tellson's wanted no light, Tellson's 
wanted no embellishment. Noakes & Co.'s might, or Snooks Brothers' 
might ; but Tellson's — thank heaven ! — Dickens. 

2. Examine the nouns in the possessive case in 1 (above), 
and tell^ which of the possessives might be replaced by an 
«9/-phrase. Mention particularly those passages in which the 
possessive would not be used in modern prose. 

3. Write sentences containing the possessive singular of — 

Henry, James, Thomas, Mr. Fox, child, Charles Price, Mrs. Gibbs, 
Edward, General Edwards, horse, Hortense, Miss Bellows, father-in-law, 
Major Ellis, commander-in-chief, Thompson and Howard (a firm), Eustis 
and Morris (a firm), Messrs. Cartwright and Bobbins, Apollo, Brutus, 

Ulysses. 

4. Write sentences containing the possessive plural of — 

Englishman, fireman, washerwoman, fox, sheep, horse, ox, child, 
emperor, empress, robin, Norman, German, hawk, Knight Templar, 
lady, sailor, heir, heiress, teacher, whale, walrus, critic, poet, vireo. 

5. In which of the sentences that you have written (under 
3 and 4) would it be possible to substitute an of-phrase for the 
possessive ? In which of them (if any) would this phrase be 
preferable ? Why 9 



NOUNS 239 

EXERCISE 12 

(§§ 97-110, pp. 47-53) 

Parse the nouns in the objective case, according to the model 
in § 112. Tell the particular construction in each instance, — 
direct object, predicate objective, indirect object, etc. 

1. Such was the narrative of Jack Grant, the mate. 2. Rippling 
waters made a pleasant moan. — Byron. 3. Swiftly they hurried away 
to the forge of Basil the blacksmith. — Longfellow. 4. A pale fog 
hung over London. 5. So like a shattered column lay the king. — 
Tennyson. 6. Then sing, ye birds, sing, sing a joyous song. — Words- 
worth. 7. A blighted spring makes a barren year. — Johnson. 8. Dark 
and neglected locks overshadowed his brow. 9. Imagine the wind howl- 
ing, the sea roaring, the rain beating. 10. Lay these vain regrets aside. 
11. Birds of passage sailed through the leaden air. 12. Authority for- 
gets a dying king. — Tennyson. 13. Three years she grew in sun and 
shower. — Wordsworth. 14. The sound of horns came floating from 
the valley, prolonged by the mountain echoes. 15. Hours had passed 
away like minutes. 16. Your mistrust cannot make me a traitor. — 
Shakspere. 

17. She halted a moment before speaking. 18. The room opened on 
a terrace adorned with statues and orange trees. 19. The sun is coming 
down to earth, and the fields and the waters shout to him golden shouts. 
— Meredith. 20. England is unrivalled for two things — sports and 
politics. — Disraeli. 21. Thus we lived several years in a state of 
much happiness. 22. The old gentleman's whole countenance beamed 
with a serene look of indwelling delight. 23. I am reading Selwyn's 
"Correspondence," a remarkable book. 24. I have lived my life. — 
Tennyson. 25. My heart is like a singing bird. — Christina Rossetti. 
26. How like a winter hath my absence been. — Shakspere. 27. Three 
weeks we westward bore. — Longfellow. 28. It rains pitchforks. — 
Fitz Gerald. 29. The sublimer and more passionate poets I still read, 
by snatches and occasionally. — De Quince y. 30. Coningsby slept the 
deep sleep of youth and health. — Disraeli. 

31. Thou mightst call him a goodly person. 32. My father named me 
Autolycus. 33. A country fellow brought him a huge fish. 34. I '11 
make you the queen of Naples. 35. You call honorable boldness impu- 
dent sauciness. — Shakspere. 36. Sir Roger generally goes two or three 
miles from his house before he beats about in search of a hare or par- 
tridge. 37. This misconception caused Washington some embarrass- 
ment. 38. I now thank you for Beattie, the most agreeable and amiable 
writer I ever met with. — Cowper. 



240 EXERCISES 

EXERCISE 13 

(§§ 97-110, pp. 47-53) 

1. Write fifteen sentences, each containing a transitive verb 
and its direct object (§§ 99-100). 

2. Substitute a pronoun for each noun in the objective case. 

3. Write ten sentences containing both a direct object and a 
predicate objective (§ 104). 

4. Use in sentences fifteen of the verbs in the list in § 105, 
each with both a direct and an indirect object. 

5. For each indirect object, substitute to with an object. 
Change the order, if necessary. 

6. Write ten sentences, each containing a cognate object 
(§ 108). 

7. Write ten sentences, each containing an adverbial objec- 
tive (§ 109). 

8. Write ten sentences, each containing a noun in apposition 
with a noun in the objective case (§ 110). 

EXERCISE 14 

(§§ 54-112, pp. 27-54) 

Parse every noun, according to the models in § 112. 

1. Pennon and banner wave no mote. 2. They soon gained the ut- 
most verge of the forest, and entered the country inhabited by men with- 
out vice. — Goldsmith. 3. Our avenue is strewn with the whole crop of 
autumn's withered leaves. — Hawthorne. 4. He is the rich man who 
can avail himself of all men's faculties. — Emerson, fh. Like an awak- 
ened conscience, the sea was moaning and tossing. — Ljongfellow. 6. He 
again called and whistled after his dog. 7. She wr^te and addressed a 
hurried note. 8. The light and warmth of that long-vanished day live 
with me still. 9. Violet and primrose girls, and orgaln boys with military 
monkeys, and systematic bands very determined in jtone if not in tune, 
filled the atmosphere. — Meredith. 10. The blood left Wilfrid's ashen 
cheek. 11. Give us manners, virtue, freedom, power ( ! — Wordsworth. 
12. A great deal of shrubbery clusters along the base\of the stone wall,, 
and takes away the hardness of its outline. 



PEONOUNS 241 

13. I travelled the whole four hundred miles between this and Madras 
on men's shoulders. 14. Here we set up twelve little huts like soldiers' 
tents. 15. Swiftly they glided away, like the shade of a cloud on the 
prairie. 16. Athens, even long after the decline of the Roman empire, 
still continued the seat of learning, politeness, and wisdom. — Goldsmith. 
17. Four times the sun had risen and set. 18. Speak ! speak ! thou 
fearful guest ! 19. The oak rose before me like a pillar of darkness. 
20. Another long blast filled the old courts of the castle with its echoes, 
and was answered by the warder from the walls. 21. Sound, sound the 
clarion, fill the fife ! — Scott. 22. Now, Falstaff, where have you been 
all this while ? 23. Sounds of a horn they heard, and the distant lowing 
of cattle. 24. Homer was always his companion now. 25. Forgive me 
these injurious suspicions. 26. O, pride ! pride ! it deceives me with the 
subtlety of a serpent. 27. I made Mr. Wright's gardener a present^of 
fifty sorts of plant seeds. 28. Your mother and I last week made a trip 
to Gayhurst, the seat of Mr. Wright, about four miles off. 29. Beneath 
the shelter of one hut, in the bright blaze of the same fire, sat this varied 
group of adventurers. 30. The cares of to-day are seldom the cares of 
to-morrow. — Cowper. 



EXERCISE 15 

(§§ 115-129, pp. 55-62) 

1. Parse the personal pronouns, using the models in § 168. 

1. She peeped from the window into the garden. 2. The little mar- 
quis immediately threw himself into the attitude of a man about to tell 
a long story. 3. It pours and it thunders, it lightens amain. — Scott, 
4. Master, master, look about you ! 5. Leontine, with his own and 
his wife's fortune, bought a farm of three hundred a year. — Addison. 

6. The Tories carry it among the new members six to one. — Swift^ 

7. I wrote to him, but could tell him nothing. 8. On the next morning 
after breakfast the major went out for a walk by himself. 9. Their 
hearts quaked within them, at the idea of taking one step farther. 
10. Mrs. Forrester's surprise was equal to ours. 11. It 's twenty years 
since he went away from home. 12. I seated myself in a recess of a 
large bow window. 13. At the last moment his heart failed him, and 
he looked round him for some mode of escape. 14. A friend of mine 
has been spending some time at Sir Walter Scott's. 

15. Send me a letter directed to me at Mr. Watcham's. 16. I have 
lately received from my bookseller a copy of my subscribers' names. 
17. We came in our first morning's march to very good springs of fresh 



.. 



242 EXERCISES 

water. 18. We are both of us inclined to be a little too positive. 
19. Heyne's best teacher was himself. — Carlyle. 

20. Aspasia, you have lived but few years in the world, and with only 
one philosopher — yourself. 21. I got to the side in time to see a huge 
liner's dim shape slide by like a street at night ; she would have been 
invisible but for her row of lights. 22. The cataracts blow their trum- 
pets from the steep. — Wordsworth. 23. I am he they call Old Care. 
— Peacock. 24. The sharp and peevish tinkle of the shop-bell made 
itself audible. 25. The heroes themselves say, as often as not, that 
fame is their object. 26. He seems to himself to touch things with 
muffled hands. 27. She took counsel with herself what must be done. 
28. The head of the Pyncheons found himself involved in serious finan- 
cial difficulties. 29. Ha ! here is Hepzibah herself ! 

2. Write sentences in which the personal pronoun of the 
first person is used as direct object, as indirect object, as 
predicate nominative ; in the possessive singular with a noun ; 
in the possessive singular without a noun. 

3. Fill the blanks with personal pronouns of the first or the 
third person. 

1. He thought the burglars were . 

2. He mistook the burglars for . 

3. William is better at his lessons than . 

4. It is . 

5. These are . 

6. Nobody volunteered except Edward and . 

7. boys have formed a debating club. 

8. Mr. Jones is going to give boys a baseball field. 

9. Who is there? . 

10. Between you and , I am not sorry that he has resigned. 

11. If I were I would study art. 

12. Arthur likes you better than . 

13. Behind Euth and came the guest of honor. 

\ 14. Automobiles are not for such as . 

15. It was that Joseph meant. 

16. two are always together. 

17. Richard dislikes everybody, most of all. 

4. Write sentences in which myself, yourself, ourselves, him- 
self, herself, themselves are used (1) intensively, (2) reflexively 
as direct object, (3) reflexively as indirect object. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 243 

EXERCISE 16 

(§§ 131-142, pp. 62-65) 

1. Parse the demonstratives and the indefinites. In parsing 
the word, tell whether it is used as a pronoun or as an adjective. 
If it is used as a pronoun, tell the number and the case and give 
the reason for the case. If it is used as an adjective, mention 
the substantive which it modifies. 

1. What is the meaning of all this? 2. On either side extended a 
ruinous wooden fence. 3. You have seen that picture, then ! 4. This very- 
Judge Pyncheon was the original of the miniature. 5. Twenty years 
ago this man was equally capable of crime or heroism ; now he is fit for 
neither. — Stevenson. 6. None are all evil. 7. Solitude has many a 
dreary hour. 8. Every science has its hitherto undiscovered mys- 
teries. — Goldsmith. 9. The same day we visited the shores of the 
isle in the ship's boats. 10. None but picked recruits were enlisted. 
11. A longing for the brightness and silence of fallen snow seizes him at 
such times. 12. Such were Addison's talents for conversation. 13. Nich- 
olas Vedder ! why, he is dead and gone these eighteen years ! 14. What 
a lamentable situation was that of the poor baron ! 15. Several houses 
were pillaged and destroyed. 

16. Each warrior was a chosen man. 17. See how yond justice rails 
upon yond simple thief! — Shakspere. 18. Our naval annals owe 
some of their interest to the fantastic and beautiful appearance of old 
warships. — Stevenson. 19. Some are too indolent to read anything till 
its reputation is established. — Johnson. 20. In both sexes, occasionally, 
this lifelong croak, accompanying each word of joy or sorrow, is one of 
the symptoms of settled melancholy. — Hawthorne. 21. Such voices 
have put on mourning for dead hopes. 22. Another phenomenon was a 
package of lucif er matches. 23. How few appear in those streets which 
but some few hours ago were crowded ! 24. This was a very different 
camp from that of the night before. 

25. Alternations of wild hope and cold despair succeeded each other. 
26. The poor know best how to console each other's sorrows. 27. Every- 
body has his own interpretation for that picture. 28. I strove with none, 
for none was worth my strife. — Landor. 29. Scarcely any of the items 
in the above-drawn parallel occurred to Phoebe. 30. He went about mop- 
ing. None spake to him. No one would play with him. — Lamb. 31. Ah, 
that good Kent ! He said it would be thus. 32. How easy is the expla- 
nation to those who know ! 33. There has been a quarrel between him 
and Hepzibah this many a day. 



244 EXEECISES 

2. Fill each blank with a personal pronoun (§ 141). 

1. Each of us should do best. 

2. Everybody thinks own way is wise. 

3. If anybody has a better plan, now is the time for to speak. 

4. It was an old-fashioned picnic, every person furnishing share 

of the provisions. 

5. When anybody is talking, it is bad manners to interrupt . 



EXERCISE 17 

(§§ 143-156, pp. 66-71) 

1. Parse the relative pronouns, using the models in § 168. 

1. The lights in the shops could hardly struggle through the heavy 
mist, which thickened every moment. 2. I shall not budge from the 
position that I have taken up. 3. The land of literature is a fairy land 
to those who view it at a distance. — Irving. 4. I hate people who 
meet Time half-way. — Lamb. 5. The weather, which had been stormy 
and unsettled, moderated toward the evening. 6. He that once indulges 
idle fears will never be at rest. — Johnson. 7. The only ford by which 
the travellers could cross was guarded by a party of militia. 8. One 
dark unruly night she issued secretly out of a small postern gate of the 
castle, which the enemy had neglected to guard. 9. I paused to con- 
template a tomb on which lay the effigy of a knight in complete, armor. 

10. He who loves the sea loves also the ship's routine. — Conrad. 

11. There were two or three indefatigable men among them, by whose 
courage and industry all the rest were upheld. — Defoe. 

12. Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea. — Wordsworth. 

13. They slander thee sorely who say thy vows are frail. — Moore. 

14. The first great poet whose works have come down to us, sang of war 
long before war became a science or a trade. — Macaulay. 15. The 
gusts that drove against the high house seemed ready to tear it from its foot- 
hold of rock. 16. At its western side is a deep ravine or valley, through 
which a small stream rushes. 17. A weak mother, who perpetually 
threatens and never performs, is laying up miseries both for herself and 
for her children. — Spencer. 18. As they approached, a raven, who sat 
upon the topmost stone, black against the bright blue sky, flapped lazily 
away. — Kingsley. 19. To such of her neighbors as needed other atten- 
tion, she would give her time, her assistance, her skill. 20. It was such a 
battle-axe as Rustum may have wielded in fight upon the banks of Oxus. 
21- I may neither choose whom I would, nor refuse whom I dislike. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 245 

2. Point out the descriptive and the restrictive relatives in 
1 (above). 

3. Write ten sentences, each containing a descriptive rela- 
tive ; ten sentences, each containing a restrictive relative. 

4. Eill the blanks with relatives. In the first eight sentences, 
at least, use tvho or whom, 

1. This is the boy ^J recommended. 

2. The boy I recommended is a Swede. 

3. The boy ■ ;-. ■ brought the letter is not the one '-- — — I recommended. 

4. I told Anna, I knew would keep my secret. 

5. I told Anna, I knew I could trust. 

6. I told Anna, I knew to be trustworthy. 

7. I told Anna, I knew intimately. 

8. No one you know lives in this street. 

9. All I can say is, I am sorry. 

10. Give me the same horse I had yesterday. 

11. A dog, showed his teeth and growled, blocked the way. 

12. Choose the partner you like best. 

13. The policeman was leading a little child had lost its mother. 

14. Take such measures you deem necessary. 

15. Take measures seem necessary. 

16. Take the measures seem to you necessary. 

17. My hat is of the same size yours. 

18. This is the picture I am so proud of. 

19. This is the picture of I am so proud. 

20. The man is talking to Henry is the one owns this house. 

5. Supply the relatives that are "understood" (§ 151). 

1. It was a bold step she had taken. 

2. I am not altogether unqualified for the business I have in hand. 

3. His taste of books is a little too just for the age he lives in. 

4. Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being eminent. 

5. Who is the wittiest man you know ? 

6. Morton was the only friend I had. 

7. That sonata was the first piece I learned. 

8. Ten dollars is the price he asks. 

9. Are you the man I bought the coat of ? 

10. This is the book we are reading evenings. 

11. Take any seat you like. 

12. f f Faust " is the only opera I care for. 

13. I have done all I can. 



246 EXERCISES 

EXERCISE 18 

(§§ 157-162, pp. 71-73) 

Parse the relatives. 

1. Whatever wisdom and energy could do William did. 2. Whatever 
is done skilfully appears to be done with ease. 3. We must suspect 
what we see, distrust what we hear, and doubt even what we feel ! — 
Miss Burnet. 4. Whoever has been in a state of nervous agitation, 
must know that the longer it continues the more uncontrollable it grows. 
— Irving. 5. Time hath reft whate'er my soul enjoyed. — Byron. 
6. The gallant major showed no hesitation whatever. 7. Whoever has 
made a voyage up the Hudson must remember the Kaatskill Mountains. 
8. A recollection of what I had seen and felt the preceding night still 
haunted my mind. 9. Hard work was what he needed now. 10. What- 
ever regrets Mrs. Thorverton might indulge in secret, she had had the 
strength of mind to hide them. 11. Like all weak men, they had re- 
course to what they called strong measures. 12. We see in him a freer, 
purer development of whatever is noblest in ourselves. 13. Sir Eoger 
was what you call a fine gentleman. 14. Sweet princes, what I did, I 
did in honor. — Shakspere. 15. He was really interested in what 
Coningsby had seen and what he had felt. 16. What was to be seen at 
Naples, Addison saw. 

EXERCISE 19 

(§§ 163-168, pp. 73-74) 

Parse the interrogative pronouns, mentioning gender, num- 
ber, person, and case. If the interrogative word is an adjective, 
tell what noun it limits. 

1. Who would not sing for Lycidas ? 2. What that sigh meant I 
cannot say. 3. Columns, arches, pyramids, what are they but heaps of 
sand? 4. Which of the two was daughter to the duke? 5. Whom 
next shall we summon from the dusty dead ? — Lamb. 6. Why ! Peggy, 
what have you brought us ? 7. What 's fame ? A fancied life in others' 
breath. — Pope. 8. To what shall I compare it? 9. And what art 
thou, O melancholy voice ? — Shelley. 10. Proud sufferer, who art 
thou ? 11. What were Swigby's former pursuits I can't tell. What 
need we care ? Had n't he five hundred a year ? Ay, that he had. — 
Thackeray. 12. What does it matter ? 13. Which way have you 
looked for Master Caius ? 14. What business had they in Prussia ? 



EEVIEW OF PEONOtHSTS 247 

EXERCISE 20 

(§§ 163-168, pp. 73-74) 

Fill each blank with, who or whom, as the construction may 
require. 

1. He asked me was elected. 

2. From did she hear this news ? 

3. To did you apply for assistance ? 

4. do you regard as the better scholar of the two ? 

5. shall I ask for the key ? 

6. did you see when you called ? 

7. do you think is the best physician in town ? 

8. can I trust in such an emergency ? 

9. With have you discussed this affair ? 

10. do you suppose this letter is from ? 

11. do you suppose I am ? 

12. do you suppose I saw ? 

13. do you think will help us ? 

EXERCISE 21 

(§§ 113-168, pp. 55-74) 

Point out each pronoun ; tell to what class it belongs, and 
give its construction. 

1. His mind now misgave him. 2. Under the dark and haunted gar- 
ret were attic chambers which themselves had histories. 3. Passion 
itself is very figurative, and often bursts out into metaphors. — Gold- 
smith. 4. He had a wiry, well-trained, elastic figure, a stiff military 
throw-back of his head, and a springing step, which made him appear 
much younger than he was. 5. It was the owl that shrieked. 6. Slowly, 
slowly, slowly the days succeeded each other. 7. Say nothing to the 
men, but have all your wits about you. 8. He saw that it would be dark 
long before he could reach the village. 9. I must do myself the justice 
to open the work with my own history. 10. Economy in our affairs 
has the same effect upon our fortunes which good breeding has upon 
our conversations. — Steele. 11. It was a cloudy night, with frequent 
showers of rain. 12. f f Fair sirs," said Arthur, f r wherefore sit ye here ? " 

13. Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow. — Byron. 

14. This is my son, mine own Telemachus. — Tennyson. 

15. Kichard bade them adieu. 16. Ye men of Kent, 'tis victory or 
death ! — Wordsworth. 17. We dined yesterday with your friend and 



248 EXERCISES 

mine, the most companionable and domestic Mr. C. 18. Great is the 
power of the man who has nothing to lose. — Doyle. 19. Each hamlet 
started at the sound. 20. Look on me with thine own calm look. 

21. Mr. Rigby was not a man who ever confessed himself at fault. 

22. They were conversing with much earnestness among themselves. 

23. He heard the deep behind him, and a cry before. 24. When Deer- 
slayer reached the fire, he found himself surrounded by no less than eight 
grim savages. 25. Mine hostess, indeed, gave me a long history how the 
goblet had been handed down from generation to generation. 26. The 
uncle and nephew looked at each other for some seconds without speaking. 
27. We had yet seen no wild beasts, or, at least, none that came very 
near us. — Defoe. 28. We envy you your sea-breezes. 29. Which is 
he that killed the deer ? 30. There was the choice, and it was still open 
to him to take which side he pleased. 31. There is always something 
to worry you. It comes as regularly as sunrise. 



EXERCISE 22 

(§§ 169-188, pp. 75-82) 

1. Point out every adjective. Tell whether it is descriptive* 
or definitive (§§ 169-171), and mention the substantive to 
which it belongs. If the adjective can be compared, give its 
three degrees of comparison. 1 

1. The old, unpainted shingles of the house were black with moisture. 
2. "My very dog," sighed poor Rip, "has forgotten me!" 3. Loud 
was the lightsome tumult on the shore. — Byron. 4. Sweet are the shy 
recesses of the woodland. 5. Rows of pewter and earthen dishes glit- 
tered along the dresser. 6. The major spoke in a matter-of-fact way. 
7. The sheep and the cow have no cutting teeth, but only a hard pad 
in the upper jaw. — Huxley. 8. The faint, foggy daylight glimmered 
dimly on the bare floor and stairs. 9. He wiped his serious, perplexed 
face on a red bandanna handkerchief, a shade lighter than his complex- 
ion. 10. The yellow moonlight sleeps on all the hills. — Beattie. 11. The 
young hostess seemed to perform her office with a certain degree of des- 
perate determination. 12. This warning is meant in a friendly spirit. 

13. The house remained untenanted for three years. 14. Number- 
less torrents, with ceaseless sound, descend to the ocean. 15. The con- 
test between the two branches of the legislature lasted some days longer. 

1 For exercises in the use of the comparative and the superlative, see 
pp. 249-250, 252. 



ADJECTIVES 249 

2. Write five sentences containing descriptive adjectives ; 
five containing definitive adjectives. 

3. Write sentences containing demonstrative, indefinite, rela- 
tive, and interrogative adjectives. 

4. Write sentences in which the indefinite article is directly 
followed by — 

honorable, youthful, yew, ewe, euphonious, historical, history, hymn, 
humble, hilarious, university, express, horticultural, oratorio, automatic, 
heritage, harmonious. 

EXERCISE 23 

(§§ 181-187, pp. 79-82) 

Point out the comparatives and the superlatives. Mention 
any superlatives used for emphasis (§ 200). 

1. The Governor-General is the frankest and best-natured of men. 

2. The company grew merrier and louder as their jokes grew duller. 

3. A knock alarmed the outer gate. 4. At once there came the po- 
litest and friendliest reply. 5. Many a poet has been poorer than Burns, 
but no one was ever prouder. — Carlyle. 6. The last tyrant ever 
proves the worst. — Pope. 7. The profoundest secrecy was observed in 
the whole transaction. 8. Earth has not anything to show more fair. 
9. The natural principle of war is to do the most harm to our enemy 
with the least harm to ourselves. — Irving. 10. During the rest of the 
journey, Eose was in the strangest state of mind. 11. There 's not a 
nobler man in Eome than Antony. 12. Little he ate, and less he spake. 
13. Our journey hither was through the most beautiful part of the finest 
country in the world. 14. Meanwhile the throng without was constantly 
becoming more numerous and more savage. 15. Vain are his weapons, 
vainer is his force. 16. She might have been more lenient. 

17. You'll have to be more practical. 18. How does a love of gain 
transform the gravest of mankind into the most contemptible and ridicu- 
lous ! — Goldsmith. 19. Most authors speak of their fame as if it were 
quite a priceless matter. 

20. Loveliest and best ! thou little know'st 

The rank, the honor, thou hast lost ! — Scott. 

21. Of two such lessons, why forget 

The nobler and the manlier one ? — Byron. 



250 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 24 

(§§ 189-198, pp. 83-87) 

1. Parse each adverb by telling whether it is an adverb of 
manner, time, place, or degree, and by mentioning the verb, 
adjective, or' adverb which it modifies. Compare the adverbs 
which are capable of comparison. 

1. A great part of the island is rather level. 2 A They had worked 
very hard and very cheerfully. 3. When spake I sucha word ? 4. We 
can ill spare the commanding social benefits of cities. —Emerson. 5.' She 
looked up and met his eyes, and thereupon both became very grave. 
6. The silence of the prairie at night was well-nigh terrible. 7. Far in 
the West there lies a desert land. 8. The whistling ploughman stalks 
afield. 9. Swiftly they glided along. 10. He has only just arrived in 
England. 11. Fast the white rocks faded from his view. 12. Whole 
ranks instantly laid down their pikes and muskets. 13. Thick clouds of 
dust afar appeared. 14. Bitter sobs came thick and fast. 15. How 
long are you going to be in Paris ? 16. To-morrow I intend to nun$. 
again. 17. Answer made King Arthur, breathing" hard. 18. Some of 
us laughed heartily. 19. They had spoken simply and openly about that 
from the very start. 

2. Form an adverb of manner from each of the following ad- 
jectives. Use each adverb in a sentence. Tell what it modifies. 

Proud, careless, vehement, tender, vigorous, dainty, brave, formal, 
courteous, blunt, sharp, keen, weary, heavy, true, skilful, legible. 




3. Fill each blank with an adverb of degree modifying the 
adjective dr the adverb. 

/l. Ogilvie was lucky that day. 

2. They were thought to be fashionable people. 

3. She made her objections delicately as she could. 

4. July has been hot. 

5. Carlyle was dainty about his food. 

6. Jack did not come early to find a seat. 

7. The tide runs fast round this point. 

8. The balloon soared high that it disappeared. 

9. The fugitive reached the pier late to take the steamer. 

10. The bear growled savagely that the dogs were frightened. 

11. You write more legibly than I. 



ADVEEBS ' 251 

EXERCISE 25 

(§§ 194-196, p. 86) 

1. Point out the relative adverbs, and mention the subordi- 
nate clause introduced by each. Tell whether each adverb 
expresses time, place, or manner. 

1. Just as the sun went down, they heard a murmur of voices. 2. On 
waking, heTound himself on the green knoll whence he had tirst seen the 
old man of the glen. 3. There is no place of general resort wherein I do 
not often make my appearance. 4. Wherever he determines to sleep, 
there he prepares himself a sort of nest. 5. I hastened to the spot 
whence I had come. 6. Where rolled the ocean, thereon was his home. 
— Byron. 7. Where shineth thy spirit, there liberty shineth too! — 
Moore. 8. He will look on the world, wheresoever he can catch a 
glimpse of it, with eager curiosity. 9. Until Lady Glenmore came to 
call next day, we heard of nothing unusual. 10. When she and Miss 
Pole left us, we endeavored to subside into calmness. 11. Small service 
is true service while it lasts. 12. Xong before we saw the sea, its spray 
was on our lips. 13. As they ascended, Rip every now and then heard 
long rolling peals, like distant thunder. 14. The village clock struck 
five ^ Mr. Millbank and his guests entered the gardens of the mansion. 
15. When only a small space was left between the armies, the High- 
landers suddenly drew their broadswords and rushed forward with a 
fearful yell. — Macaulay. 16. When he rejoined his companions, he 
said something to them in Welsh. 

2. Point out the interrogative adverbs, and tell what each 
modifies. 

1. Why look' st thou so ? 2. Whence came ye, jolly satyrs ? whence 
came ye? — Keats. 3. Where now shall I go, poor, forsaken, and 
blind? — Campbell. 4. Why weep ye by the tide ? — Scott. 5. See 
how the world its veterans rewards ! — Pope. 6. How wildly will ami 
bition steer! — Dryden. 7. Where have you been these twenty long 
years ? 8. Here was a Caesar ! When comes such another ? — Shakspere . 
9: When shall we three meet again ? 1(X History is clarified experience, 
and yet how little do men profit by it ! Nay, how should we expect^it 
of those who so seldom are taught anything by their own ? — Lowell. 
11. Why did you not bring what I asked for ? 

3. Write ten sentences containing relative adverbs ; ten con- 
taining interrogative adverbs. 



252 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 26 

(§§ 197-203, pp. 87-89) 

1. Point out the comparatives and superlatives. Tell whether 
each is an adjective or an adverb. 

1. I thought it the most prudent method to lie still. 2. When the 
people observed I was quiet, they discharged no more arrows. 3. You 
know your own feelings best. 4. He was taller than any of the other 
three who attended him. 5. The song and the laugh grew less and less 
frequent. 6. The harder I try to forget it, the more it comes into my 
mind. 7. The night grew darker and darker ; the stars seemed to sink 
deeper in the sky. 8. I answered in a few words, but in a most submis- 
sive manner. 9. Their sight is much more acute than ours. 10. The 
natives came by degrees to be'lesS apprehensive of any danger from me. 
11. Whoever performs his part with the most agility, and holds out 
longest in leaping, is rewarded with the blue-colored silk. 12. It re- 
ceived less damage than I expected. 13. Long live the most puissant 
king of Lilliput ! 14. East are the flying moments, faster are the hoofs 
of our horses. 15. Nigh come the strangers and more nigh. — Scott. 

+** 2. Write sentences containing either the comparative or the 
superlative of the following words : — 

merry, uncomfortable, ill; joyfully, northern, old (both forms), far, in, 
out, early, little (adjective), little (adverb), badly, often, worthy, wonderful, 
accurate, far, nigh, top, much, severe. 

Write six sentences containing adverbs which are incapa- 
of comparison; six containing adjectives which are inca- 
pable of comparison. 

EXERCISE 27 
(§§204-208, pp. 1 89-90) 

1. Write five sentences in which cardinal jmmera ls are adjec- 
tives, five in which they are nouns. TJse_the same numerals in 
the ordinal form as adjectives, as nqu,ns. 

Write five sentences, each containing a numeral adverb ; 
five containing an adverbial phrase that includes a numeral. 



VERBS 253 

EXERCISE 28 

(§§ 209-215, pp. 91-93) 

1. Point out all the verbs and verb-phrases. Tell whether 
each is transitive or intransitive. Tell which are copulative ; 
which are auxiliary. Mention any examples of the copula. 

1. Little tasks make large return. 2. We must now return to the 
fortress of Tillietudlem and its inhabitants. 3. Though I loolTold, yet I 
am strong and lusty. 4. The sunshine might now be seen stealing down 
the front of the opposite house. 5. He sat apart from them all, and 
looked at them with a melancholy, haughty countenance ; while the rest 
hallooed and sang and laughed, and the room rang. 6. You cannot re- 
lieve me, but you may add to the torments I suffer. 7. One gains noth- 
ing by attempting to shut out the sprites of the weather.' /They come in 
at the keyhole ; they peer through the dripping panes ; they insinuate 
themselves through the crevices of the casement, or plump themselves 
down chimney astride of the raindrops. — Whittier. 8. A large lamp 
threw a strong mass of light upon the group. 9. The baron pardoned 
the young couple on the spot. 10. Every now and then he would turn his 
head slowly round. 

11. The river sleeps along its course and dreams of the sky and of the 
clustering foliage. 12. A severe gale compelled him to seek shelter. 

13. Miss Betsy Barker dried her eyes and thanked the Captain heartily. 

14. Pray you, @J^not sad. 15. I am ! yet what I am who cares, or 
knows ? — Clare. 16. After all, it is a glorious pastime tolmd oneself 
in a real gale of wind, in a big ship, witn not a rock to run against within 
a thousand miles/ — Kingsley. 13^ We will talk over all this another 
time. 18. What is progress ? Movement. But what if it be movement 
in the wrong direction? — Disraeli. 19. They say you are a melan- 
choly fellow. 20. The valiant Clifford is no more. 21. The wreck had 
evidently drifted about for many months ; clusters of shellfish had 
fastened about it, and long seaweed flaunted at its sides. — Irving. 
22. Times grew worse and worse with Rip Van Winkle as years of 
matrimony rolled on. 

2. Frame twenty sentences, each containing a verb-phrase. 
Use the auxiliaries mentioned in § 210. Let some of the sen- 
tences be interrogative. 

3. Make a list of twenty verbs that are transitive in one 
sense, intransitive in another (§ 212). Use these verbs in 
sentences. 




y 



EXERCISES 



$ 



llustrate the absolute use of transitive verbs by framing 
ten sentences (§ 213). 

5. Make a list of six copulative verbs (§ 214). Use them in 
sentences. Frame sentences in which the same verbs are not 
copulative (§ 215). 

6. Use the copula (§ 214) in twenty sentences, several of 
which shall illustrate its use in verb-phrases. 

EXERCISE 29 

(§§ 217-225, pp. 94-99) 

1. Write ten sentences in each of which a weak (or regular) 
verb is used in the past tense ; ten, in each of which a strong 
(or irregular) verb is used in the past tense. 

2. Construct sentences in which the past tense of each of 

7 the following verbs is used : drink, lie, sow, get, wake, dwell, 
$ing, pay, bid y light, bereave, bui%d^4d&,-Jtrtmg^ sivim, lay, split, 
shrink, slay, wring, weave, thrive, spin, tread, shake, burst, slink, 
dive; flee, fly, swing, wet, fling, kneel, let, chide. 

3. Point out all the verbs (except the copula and auxiliaries) 
in Exercise 28, 1, and conjugate them in the present and the 
past tense. Tell which are weak (regular) and which are strong 
(irregular). Account for the person and number. 

EXERCISE 30 

(§§ 226-232, pp. 100-102) 
1. Fill each blank with am, is, or are. 

1. England and the United States^- at peace. 

2. Neither Arthur nor John -AJ^ right. 

3. Either a saw or an axe -^- necessary. 

4. Either you or Dorothy —4&* going. 

5. You and I — — - going. \ 

6. You and he going. 

7. Is it Mr. Allen or is it his children who -* — going ? 

8. Either he going or you . 



*/ 







VEEBS 255 

9. Either you going or I — — . 

10. The sum and substance of the article this. 

11. Half the sheep f missing. 

12. A number of Italians present. 

13. The number of Italians in this town -^%small. 

14. Mathematics my most difficult study. 

15. The number of applicants ■* not sufficient 

16. A number of reasons^=-A-* alleged. 

17. The jury* ** ' - in agreement. 

18.- The jury — — being charged by the judge. 

19. The committee — =*- composed of five members. 

20. The committee -* — — always wrangling with one another. 

21. I, who only a beginner, cannot compete with Richards, who 

an expert. j ^-*-*~**> Nk 

22. He is one of those men who / ^ ,> always out of work. 

23. I am not a mJrfwho - — easily frightened. 

24. Walter is one of the best fellows there -v-**tin this town. 

25. Is it the king and queen who ■ ' <: coming ? 

26. Is it the king or the queen who -4-*— coming ? 

27. They made me, who -i^-^ the shyest of mortals, respond to a 
toast. 

28.^^ gift of four hundred books, eighteen maps, and ten plastei 
casts -*»to be made to our school. 

29. Vocal and instrumental music taught here. 

30. Neither vocal nor instrumental music ^0 >* taught here. 

«— 8ft. Neither elementary nor advanced physics ^— taught here. 

32. Neither organic nor inorganic chemists -^- — trained here. 

33. One or two pages -^ — missing. 

34. Physics, together with algebra and Latin, .r-^— taught the first 
year. ' 

35. Stevenson's "Memories and Portraits" — - — lying on the table. 

36. The. insurgent general with ten of his followers ■ * ■ ■» said to have 
surrendered. ^- — -* ^ 

37. James, as well as his sisters, •* coming. 

38. Six months -w- a long time to wait. » 

39. A series of lectures — ^— given here every winter. 

2. Make a list of ten collective nouns. Use them in sentences 
(1) with a singular verb, (2) with a plural verb. Explain the 
difference in meaning. 

3. Use the relative who in ten sentences in which the ante- 
cedent is in the first or the second person. 





1. Explain the 
sentences. 



G> 



EXERCISES 

EXERCISE 31 
(§§ 233-241, pp. 102-105) 

of will and .shall in the following 



use 



^. 






/ 



1. We shall never forget what you have done for us. 2. " You ought 
to know my military secretary," said the general, as Lothair entered, 
"and therefore I will introduce you." 3. I am very patient; I will 
wait. 4. If I do return, I will vote against them. Bui I will not return. 
I have made up my mind to- that. 5. I will send you Jennings's poem, if 
you like. 6. You will of course make a drawing and an estimate, and 
send them to me (§240). 7. Do congratulate her for me, will you? 
8. Another Athens shall arise. — Shelley. 9. "I won't allow it!" 
cried Lady Niton, fr he sha'n't go ! " 10. Shall I find you at home if I 
call some day soon, between five and six o'clock ? 11. You must be con- 
vinced, and on reflection you will be convinced. "^12. Before my journey 
to Rochdale, you shall have due notice where to address me. 13. I con- 
sider myself a first-rate shot, and you shall practise with me. 14. Shall 
I ever forget that party ? 15. Shall you^hrunt. to-morrow, Mr. Deronda ? 
16: When shall you be at Cambridge ? J^'^Y^i 
£J*j£*i. Lady St. Jerome is a little indisposed — a cola caught at one of her 
- bazaars. She will hold them, and they say that no one ever sells so much. 
— Disraeli. 18. Will you be good enough to keep an account of all the 
manuscripts you receive, for fear of omission ? 19. O rest ye, brother 
mariners, we will not wander more. — Tennyson. 20. Will you forward 
the inclosed immediately to Corbet, whose address I do not exactly re- 
member ? 21. Byron was no common man : yet if we examine his poetry 
with this view, we shall find it far enough from faultless. — Carlyle. 
22. I shall be in town by Sunday next, and will call and have some conver- 
sation on the subject of Westall's proposed design. 23. Will you go 
down, dear ? I will follow you in a moment. 24. Will not your trip to 
Bath afford you an opportunity to take a peep at Weston ? 25. Never, 
as long as I live, will I speak to you again, nor shall Harry, whom you 
have humiliated ! 

26. Yet he for whom I grieve shall never know it. 27. Shall you let 
him go to Italy ? 28. Prone to the dust Oppression shall be hurled. — 
Campbell. 29. You sha'n't go on with this affair, I tell you, Harry. 30. I 
shall probably return this evening, but I will see you before I go. — Trol- 
lope. 31. In the interim I shall leave town ; on Sunday I shall set out 
for Herefordshire, from whence, when wanted, I will return. 32. If my 
father does not return with me in the spring, it shall not be for want of 
urging on my part. — Cooper. 





Fill each blank with ivill or shall. 






g^YEKBS 257 






I 1 



Cm 



be glad to see you. C^>^ 
We —> — be obliged to go home early. 
I ^ — help you whenever you wish. 
I promise that he <- — •* not trouble you again. 
You ■ ■ ■ ' <* be kind enough to take your seat. 

We miss our train, I fear. 

I must hurry or I — =— be late. 

Kobert have as much as is good for him. 

9. Arthur — — disobey me in spite of all I can do. 

10. Arthur obey you, I am sure. 

11. Arthur obey me, or I punish him. 

12. If we reject these offers, we regret it. 

13. I no longer endure his insolence. 

14. they return in season for dinner ? 

15. I have to excuse you this time, I suppose. 

16. I gladly see you at any time. 

17. You not leave this room until you have confessed. 

18. He give you the money, I feel confident. 

19. He give you the money, or I have no more to do with him. 

20. we allow them to do as they please ? 

^ Write declarative sentences, using will or shall in the 
first person (singular or plural) to express a threat, a promise, 
resolution, consent, desire, determination, simple futurity. 

4. Fill the blanks in the following questions with will or 
shall. Write sentences (using will or shall) in answer. 

l)(rrV l/f'' y° u promise to do better ? jx 

2. you make any promises if he insists ? JL * 

we miss our train ? 

we go ? Just ask us ! 

I go now ? I fear I am wearying you. 

6. I tell you what I really think ? 

7. you call a cab for me, if you please ? 

8. you be glad to see him ? 

9. you see me if I call at one o'clock ? 

10. we see you this evening ? 

11. you be kind enough to open that door, or I ? 

12. you miss your brother ? 

13. we wait here, or you relent and let us go with you ? 

14. we allow this evil to continue ? 

15. you forgive me ? 







258 EXERCISES 

EXERCISE 32 

(§§ 242-245, pp. 106-107) 

1. Name all the complete (or compound) tenses and explain 
their formation. 

1. Four long years in the times of the war had he languished a cap- 
tive. — Longfellow. 2.- The adventurer has subsequently returned to 
his native country. 3. Spiders had built their webs in the angles of the 
walls and ceilings. 4. Whole fleets had been ©|,st away. Large mansions 
had been blown down. 5. I am just returned from staying three days 
at a delightful inn by the river Ouse, where we always go to fish (§ 242, 1, 
note). — Fitz Gerald. 6. In the evening we reached a village where I 
had determined to pass the night. 7. I have sent by the Gisbbrnes a 
copy of the ff Elegy on Keats." 8. I have really done my best. 9. Our 
visits to the islands have been more like dreams than realities. 10. We 
are here arrived at the crisis of Burns' s life. 11. The chills of a long 
winter had suddenly given way ; the north wind had spent its last gasp ; 
and a mild air came stealing from the west. 12. The officer at last turned 
away, having satisfied himself that the room was empty. 13. Carson will 
have reached shelter long before this. 

2. Construct ten sentences in which the verbs in Exercise 
29, 2 are used in the perfect tense. 

3. Turn the verbs in these sentences into the pluperfect 
tense ; into the future perfect tense. Write sentences in which 
the same verbs are used as perfect participles ; as perfect 
infinitives. 

/ 
EXERCISE 33 
246-254, pp. 107-112) 

:1 whether each verb is in the active or the passive 
voice. 

2. If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make 
->£'uch other changes as may be necessary. If the verb is active, 
?' change it to the passive. 
ff 




3. Conjugate each verb in the tense in which it occurs. 



/ 






ACTIVE AtfD PASSIVE 259 




1. The customs of mankind afe influenced in many ways by climate. 
2. The door, which was^slightly ajar, was suddenly pushed open. 3. The. 
landlord handed the stranger the newspaper. 4. After a short pause,- 
my host resumed his narration. 5. During the greater part of that night 
my slumbers were disturber! by strange dreams. 6. Not a word was 
spoken, not a sound was made. 7. The great willow tree had caught 
and retained among its leaves a whole cataract of water. 8. Early in 
the morning I was awakened by the voices of Peter and his wife. 9. He 
that is loudly praised will be clamorously censured. — Johnson. 10. Out 
of this story he formed a tragedy. 11. The assailants were repulsed in 
their first attack, and several of their bravest officers were shot down in 
the act of storming the fortress sword in hand. 12. This fatal question 
has disturbed the quiet of many other minds. 13. No genius was ever 
blasted by the breath of critics. — Johnson. 14. The jury then heard 
the opinion of the judge. 

15. What cruel maxims are we taught by a knowledge of the world ! 
— Miss Burney. 16. Their departure made another material change at 
Mansfield. 17. The appearance of a housemaid prevented any further 
conversation. 18. Each word of this leave-taking was overheard by 
Kezia. 19. Before nine o'clock next morning the two canoes were in- 
stalled on a light country cart. 20. An old harper was summoned from 
the servants' hall. 21. He had been wounded at Waterloo. 22. This 
advice struck the disputants dumb. 23. Through the night were heard 
the mysterious sounds of the desert. 24. A violent storm of rain obliged 
them to take shelter in an inn. 25. Far was heard the fox's yell. — Scott. 
26. Adams highly commended the doctor's opinion. 




ewrite the following sentences, changing the form of the 
verbs from active to passive, or from passive to active. Notice 
the effect upon subjects and objects. 

1. I ^vas brought up by aa^dilicle. 2. I have found them. 3. We 
were delayed by the storm. 4. They were warned by the pilot. 5. She 
saw us. 6. That winter will never be forgotten by any of us. 7. You 
surprise me. 8. Will you meefme ? 9. Was he struck by a bullet ? 
10. Have you forgotten me ? 11. How the crowd cheered him ! 12. Tom, 
the blacksmith, makes horseshoes. 13. The schooner was run down by 
the steamship. 14. The old man has opened a little shop. 15. Mary 
has invited Ellen. 16. Mary might have invited Ellen. 17. Mary will 
invite Ellen. 18. The storm has made great havoc along the coast. 19. The 
children have been called home by their nurse. 20. He vexes me. 21. The 
tower was struck by lightning yesterday. 22. A policeman helped her 
over the crossing. 23. I was amused by your letter. / 





260 EXERCISES ^ 

S7) 

5. Use each ^ofUthp. following verbs in both, the' active and 
the passive of the past, the future, and the perfect (or present 
perfect) : — send, bring, teach, drink, get, set, lay, leave, find, 
forget. ^ 

6. Use each of the verbs in § 105 in the active voice of the 
past tense with both a direct and ail indirect object. Change 
to the passive. 

EXERCISE 34 ^O | | V 

(§§ 255-261, pp. 113-114) 

1. Point out all the progressive and all the emphatic verb- 
phrases. Mention the tense and voice of each. Note any in- 
stances where do and did are not emphatic. 

1. Thus did.__lb£L long sad years glide on. 2. Now pray xio^settle in 
England. 3. Meanwhile, I go about in my little ship, where Ldo^hink 
I have two honest fellows to deal with. 4. I remember. I do indeed 
remember — too well! 5. Not until it was broad daylight did I quit 
the haunted house. 6. Do but look on her eyes. 7. Roland reached 
the boat just as the gang plank was being hauled in. 8. We are being 
entertained by the Archers. 9. The man at our wheel was spinning his 
spokes desperately to avoid banging into vessels we could not see, but 
whose bells were ringing everywhere about us. 10. Wild weeds are 
gathering on the wall. 11. I did actually pick up a French crown piece, 
worth about a dollar and six cents, near high-water mark. 12. I was 
loitering about the old gray cloisters of Westminster Abbey. 13. The 
friends of Coningsby were now hourly arriving. 14. My eyes have 
been leaving me in the lurch again. 

15. They had been for some time passing through narrow gorges of 
the mountains, along the edges of a tumbling stream. 16. We are just 
sitting down to dinner with a pleasant party. 11. The large Newfound- 
land house-dog was standing by the door. 18. ff Do thou," said Ber- 
tram, "lead the way." — Scott. 19. Music in his ears his beating heart 
did make. 20. Over the hillsides the wild knell is tolling. — Holmes. 

2. Write sentences in which the verb teach is used in the 
present progressive, past progressive, future progressive, per- 

ct progressive, pluperfect progressive, and future perfect 
progressive tenses of the active voice. 

3. Write ten questions containing some fopnjudf do (or did). 



^ " J^ ^ 



IMPERATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE 261 

EXERCISE 35 

(§§ 262-286, pp. Il5-123)"~~ 

Point out all the verbs in the imperative or the subjunctive 
mood. Tell the subjects of the imperatives and explain the 
forms and uses of the sjibjuiiciixes^-, 

1. And now dispatch we toward the court, my lords. — Shakspere. 

2. I think you had better speak to Lady Corisande yourself (§ 285). 

3. My dear boy, God bless thee a thousand times over ! 4. that the 
desert were my dwelling place! 5. "Kest we here," Matilda said. — 
Scott. 6. Go where thy destiny calls the%^ 7. Now Hesper guide my V*" 
feet. — Akenside. 8. O that such hills upheld a freeborn race! — /g, 

Byron. 9. Perish those riches which are acquired at the expense of my 

honor or my humanity ! — Goldsmith. 10. Would all were well ! but 

that will never be. ■ — Shakspere. 11. The distaff were more fitting for 
you. 12. Robert hesitated, as if he were inclined to refuse. 13. Do 
what they might, the hook was in their gills. — George Meredith. 
14. Fare you well, fair gentlemen. — Shakspere. 15. Suffice it to say, 
the robbers were defeated. 16. Disclose thy treachery, or die ! 17. Let 
us not be influenced by any angry feelings. 18. Be that as it may, Kidd 
never returned to recover his wealth. 

19. I would to God my heart were flint, like Edward's. — Shakspere. 
20. Move we on. — Scott. 21. Mark that the signal-gun be duly fired. 
— Byron. 22. The hull drives on, though mast and sail be torn. 23. I 
am glad that you liked my song, and, if I liked the others myself so well 
as that I sent you, I would transcribe them for you also. — Cowper. 
24. I beseech you, punish me not with your hard thoughts. — Shakspere. 
-25. If there be change, no change I see. — Landor. 26. Be it as thou 
wilt. 27. Weep you no more, sad fountains. 28. If thou leave thy 
father, he will die. — Wordsworth. 29. Come thou no more for ransom, 
gentle herald. — Shakspere. 30. Learn thou his purpose. 31. Come, 
go we in procession to the village. — Shakspere. 32. The destruction 
of property which took place within a few weeks would be incredible, 
if it were not attested by witnesses unconnected with each other and 
attached to very different interests. 

33. I wish I were as I have been, 

Hunting the hart in forest green. — Scott. 

34. Come what come may, 

Time and the hour runs through the roughest day. — Shakspere. 

35. Buried be all that has been done, 

Or say that naught is done amiss. — Crabbe. 



262 EXERCISES 

EXERCISE 36 

(§§ 272-286, pp. 118-123) 
Fill each blank with a verb in the appropriate form. 

1. O that he ^— -f*here ! 

2. Would that I there! 

3. If he a little older, I should take him into partnership. 

4. you asked me to go, I should have refused. 

5. you to ask me, I should refuse. 

6. If you there, I should have seen you. 

7. I am glad I saw the play, even if I a little disappointed. 

_: 8. I should have been glad to see the play, even if I a little 

disappointed. 

9. I should be glad to see the play, even if I - a little disappointed. 

10. I shall be glad to see the play, even if I a little disappointed. 

11. Though he to increase my salary, I should not remain in his 

employ. [Use the copula.] 

12. Unless he to increase my salary, I should not remain in his 

employ. [Use the copula.] 

13. When Tom saw you, you looked as if you angry. [Use the 

copula.] 

14. When Tom sees you, I suppose you will look as if you — • — angry. 

15. I must remind him to post this letter, lest he it. 

EXERCISE 37 

(§§ 287-295, pp. 124-127) 

, Explain the meaning of each potential verb-phrase, and 
parse the phrase. In parsing such a phrase, describe it merely 
as a potential verb-phrase and tell the tense, voice, person, and 
number, without assigning it to any mood. 

1. Enough! You may depart. 2. Men should travel. 3. What must 
be shall be. That's a certain text. — Shakspere. 4. At times, with a 
strong effort, he would glance at the open door which still seemed to 
repel his eyes. 5. Nothing can bring you peace but yourself. — Emerson. 
6. It was sometimes sad enough to watch him as he sat alone. He would 
have a book near him, and for a while would keep it in his hands. — 
Trollope. 7. 0, my friend ! may I believe you ? May I speak to you ? 

8. Presently he faced Adrian, crying, f f And I might have stopped it ! " 

9. Nothing is impossible to the man who can will. — Emerson. 10. A 



MODAL AUXILIAEIES 263 

scholar may be a well-bred man, or he may not. — Emerson. 11. "I 
trust we 're at liberty to enter," said the elder lady with urbanity. f f We 
were told that we might come at any time." 12. I sent for you that I 
might have your counsel and assistance. 13. I could no longer doubt 
the doom prepared for me. 

14. I am as well as I can expect to be under the excitement which I 
suffer. 15. I can become a party to no such absurd proceeding. 16. I 
could scarcely refrain from tears. 17. Come! we must go back. 18. We 
must be strangers to each other in future. 19. As my horse must now 
have eaten his provender, I must needs thank you for your good cheer, 
and pray you to show me this man's residence, that I may have the means 
of proceeding on my journey. 

EXERCISE 38 

(§§ 289-291, pp. 125-126) 

1. Fill each blank with can or may. 

1. I borrow your pen ? 

2. Yes, you . 

3. No, you not. 

^ 4. I swim across this river some day, for I know well enough 

thatf^ . 

5. I shall ask my father if I swim across this river. I know well 

enough that I . 

6. My father is confident that I swim across the river safely. 

7. My father says that I swim across the river if I will wait 

until he go with me. 

8. I. trouble you to give me that tennis racket ? 

9. It be that you will regret this. 

10. It ^ "- not be that you will regret this. 

11. you take a vacation this year, or is permission still refused ? 

12. Why not ask if you ■ » take a vacation ? 

13. You — — take your vacation after I have taken mine. 

14. The weather man says we ">,>■■ hope for sunshine to-morrow. 

15. He \ be thankful that he escaped so easily. 

16. When you are twenty-one, you - — have your own way. 

2. Write sentences asking permission in the first, second, 
and third persons. Write sentences (1) granting these requests j 
(2) refusing them. 



264 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 39 

(§§ 297-308, pp. 127-132) 

1. Justify the use of the auxiliary (should or would). In 
some of the sentences, should might be substituted for would. 
Which are they ? 

1. If I were you, I would not dwell too much on this fancy of yours. 
2. I have neither servants nor clothes, and, if it had not been for these 
good people, I should not have had food. 3. I should delight in having 
her for a sister-in-law. 4. I should hardly wish to go out before Friday. 
5. I should n't wonder if this made him set his teeth. 6. Well, that 's 
over ! and I 'm sure neither Oliver nor I would go through it again for 
a million of money. 7. If I were you, I would turn it over in my mind. 
8. I should be afraid to express myself in this manner, if the matter were 
not clear and indisputable. — Burke. 9. I should like to remain where I 
am for another week or ten days. 10. Would you do me the favor to look 
at a few specimens of my portrait-painting ? — Dickens. 11. ff Would 
you come?" she said, with a serious, searching glance, and in a kind 
of coaxing manner. — "I should be an intruder, my dear lady," said 
Theodore, declining the suggestion. — Disraeli. 

12. I should not like to be out of my seat were the House in session. — 
W. J. Locke. 13. If I were you I would not tempt Fate by remaining 
here a day longer. — W. E. Norris. 14. Candidates would rather, I 
suppose, climb in at a window than be absolutely excluded. — Cowper. 
15. Impey would not hear of mercy or delay. 16. I should not be sur- 
prised if he were here immediately. 17. There 's a plantation of sugar- 
canes at the foot of that rock : should you like to look? — George Eliot. 

2. Explain the use of the auxiliary (shall, should, or will, 
would) in each subordinate clause. 

1. With this purpose in view, he sent a skilful architect to build him 
such a palace as should be fit for a man of his vast wealth to live in. 
2. Their majesties commanded me to submit to whatever Bobadilla should 
order in their name. 3. Should you find yourself able to push on to 
Braemar, your visit will be most welcome. 4. It 's a simple affair enough, 
if you '11 just leave it as it stands. 5. Eearing to awaken Joseph a second 
time, lest he should again hazard all by his thoughtlessness, he crept 
softly out of the wigwam. 6. I watched the grapes from day to day 
till they should have secreted sugar enough from the sunbeams. 7. If 
an old prophecy should come to pass, we may see a man, some time or 



SHOULD AND WOULD 265 

other, with exactly such a face as that. 8. He kept his heart continually 
open, and thus was sure to catch the blessing from on high, when it 
should come. — Hawthorne. 9. This law provided that the presidency 
of Bengal should exercise a control over the other possessions of the 
Company. 10. It is time that we should proceed. 

11. It is necessary that he should have some work to do. 12. I shall 
be thankful ji you will condescend to enlighten my ignorance. 13. It 
was natural that the leading Authors should affect a style of levity and 
derision. — Jeffrey. 14. I will take care that you shall not be troubled 
by him again. 15. That the Duke of Wellington should cordially approve 
is singular enough. 16. f f Boys," interrupted Wilder, ff it is now proper 
that you should know something of my future movements." — Cooper. 
17. We all stood ready to succor them if there should be occasion. — 
Defoe. 18. You are so well qualified for the task yourself that it is 
impossible you should need any assistance ; at least, it is hardly possible 
that I should afford you any. — Cowper. 19. The brave sufferer refused 
to purchase liberty, though liberty to him would have been life, by recog- 
nizing the authority which had confined him. 20. I meant that he should 
walk off, but he did not choose to understand me. 21. When time shall 
serve, you shall have the fruit of my labors. — Cowper. 

22. I shall be so glad if you will tell me what to read. — George Eliot. 
23. I protest against such a combat, until the king of England shall have 
repaid the fifty thousand bezants. — Scott. 24. Unless something should 
go wrong, I flatter myself that the performance will elicit your generous 
approbation. 25. A seat in the cabinet was offered to him, on condition 
that he would give efficient support to the ministry in Parliament. 26. The 
proposition which he made was, that Fox should be Secretary of State. 

27. That night he put forth a proclamation, directing that the posts 
should be stopped, and that no person should, at his peril, venture to 
harbor the accused members. — Macaulay. 28. Hyde interfered, and 
proposed that the question should be divided. 29. I am sorry that you 
should be bothered in this way. 30. I am sorry that Murray should 
groan on my account. — Byron. 31. There are old brass andirons, wait- 
ing until time shall revenge them on their paltry substitutes. 32. Should 
he be acquitted, that, I imagine, should end the matter. 33. A rumor was 
circulated that some new pageant was about to be exhibited, which should 
put a fitting close to the splendid festivities. 34. If this new purpose of 
conquest shall be abandoned, Richard may yet become King of Jerusalem 
by compact. — Scott. 35. Saladin desires no converts save those whom 
the holy prophet shall dispose to submit themselves to his law. 36. Pride 
now came to Montezuma's aid, and, since he must go, he preferred that 
it should appear to be with his own free will. 37. God forbid that I 
should regret those gifts ! 




266 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 40 

(§§ 309-323, pp. 132-137) 

1. Point out each infinitive and explain its construdfion as 
noun, as complementary infinitive, as infinitive of purpose, as 
modifier of a noun or an adjective, or as part of a verb-phrase 
(with an auxiliary). f 

2. Point out any modifiers or objects of infinitives. 

1. To advance toward London would have been madness. 2. To trace 
the exact boundary between rightful and wrongful resistance is impossi- 
ble. — Macaulay. 3. I was too young to keep any journal of this voyage. 
4. The baron hastened to receive his future son-in-law. 5. It was her 
habit to go over to the deanery (§ 318). 6. He could not consent to turn 
his back upon a party of helpless travellers. 7. The fixed purpose of 
these men was to break the foreign yoke. 8. Here rise no cliffs the vale 
to shade. 9. They saw the gleaming river seaward flow (§ 322). 10. She 
perceived one of the eyes of the portrait move. 11. His first scheme was 
to seize Bristol. 12. The first business of the Commons was to elect a 
Speaker. 13. The old man frequently stretched his eyes ahead to gaze 
over the tract that he had yet to traverse. 14. When other things sank 
brooding to sleep, the heath appeared slowly to awake and listen. — 
Hardy. 15. All were anxious to hear the story of the mysterious pic- 
ture. 16. I see the lights of the village gleam through the rain and the 
mist. 17. Then the bishop rose from his chair to speak. 

18. To dismiss him from his high post was to emancipate him from all 
restraint. 19. This is not a time to hesitate. 20. Burghers hastened to 
man the wall. 21. I felt Leslie's hand tremble on my arm. 22. He 
heard a mighty bowstring twang. — Morris. 23. Mr. Kalph Nickleby 
sat in his private office one morning, ready dressed to walk abroad. 24. I 
put down the letters, and began to muse over their contents. 25. Waves 
of clear sea are, indeed, lovely to watch. 26. Halifax had now nothing 
to give. 27. The neighborhood seemed to breathe a tranquil prosperity. 
28. It is always perilous to adopt expediency as a guide. 29. Soldiers 
were drawn up to keep the passage clear. 

3. Write sentences containing an infinitive used as subject, as 
predicate nominative, as appositive, as the object of a preposi- 
tion, as an adjective ; a complementary infinitive ; an infinitive 

„ of purpose ; an infinitive used with shall, with will, with must. 

4. Note any modifiers or objects that you have used with 
the infinitives. 



THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE 267 



EXERCISE 41 

(§§ 324-328, pp. 137-139) 

1. Point out each infinitive clause. Mention the verb of 
which it is the object. Eind the subject of each infinitive. 
When it is possible, substitute a that-cl&use for the infinitive 
clause. 

1. It might seem irreverent Jto make the gray cathedral and the tall 
time-worn palaces echo back the exuberant vociferation of the market. 
2. We have made you wait. 3. We then went to Pembroke College, 
and waited on his old friend Dr. Adams, the master of it, whom I found 
to be a most polite, pleasing, communicative man. — Boswell. 4. The 
doctor expects Captain Starbuck to recover. 5. For a good sailor to foul 
the first buoy was ludicrous enough. 6. Will you ask Annie to feed the 
parrot ? 7.1 believe it to be a speaking likeness. 8. I suppose them 
to be utterly ignorant of their own condition. 

9. Hepzibah bade her young guest sit down. 10. Calamity and peril 
often force men to combine. 11. He knew himself to be a liar whom 
nobody trusted. 12. I must not ask the reader to suppose that he was 
cheerful. 13. I felt this melancholy to be infectious. 14. No one on 
seeing Mr. Crawley took him to be a happy man, or a weak man, or an 
ignorant man, or a wise man. — Trollope. 15. Humanity impelled him 
to rescue the poor wretch. 

2. Write sentences containing infinitive clauses used after 
verbs of wishing, commanding, believing, declaring, perceiving. 

3. Till each blank with a personal pronoun. , g _ / 

1. He believes the author to be ^^7 [First person.] 

2. He believes that the author is .-3= — . [First person.] 

3. I knew the thief to be . [Third person.] 

4. I thought that the thief was . [Third person.] 

5. We thought the strangers to be -^ — . [Third person.] "' 

6. We thought that the strangerfe"w4re . [Third person.] 

4. Fill each blank with who or whom. 

1. The man- — I believe to be responsible for this accident is the 
engineer. .jJL*— ck 

2. I believe that the man is responsible for this accident is the 

engineer. - — *-. 

3. My knock was answered by a lad ' I believed to be a lodger. 

4. You are not the person I believed you to be. 



y&^tCSl. 



268 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 42 

(§§ 329-343, pp. 140-143) 

1. Point out all the participles, present and past, and tell 
what substantive each modifies. Mention such as are used as 
pure adjectives. Mention any modifiers or objects of participles. 

1. The ship is anchored safe and sonnd, its voyage closed and done. — 
Whitman. 2. Even the tight windows and the heavy silken curtains 
drawn close could not shut out the sound of the driving sleet. 3. Godol- 
phin was not a reading man. 4. Mr. Sikes, dragging Oliver after him, 
elbowed his way through the thickest of the crowd. 5. Betrayed, de- 
serted, disorganized, unprovided with resources, begirt with enemies, the 
noble city was still no easy conquest. 6. Thus regretted and cautioned 
on all hands, Mordaunt took leave of the hospitable household. 7. Far 
away, an angry white stain undulating on the surface of steely-gray 
waters, shot with gleams of green, diminished swiftly, without a hiss, 
like a patch of pure snow melting in the sun. — Conrad. 8. I set her 
on my pacing steed. — Keats. 

9. But the poor traveller paused here barely for a minute, and then 
went on, stumbling through the mud, striking his ill-covered feet against 
the rough stones in the dark, sweating in his weakness, almost tottering 
at times, and calculating whether his remaining strength would serve to 
carry him home. — Trollope. 10. His teeth are set, his hand is clenched. 
11. Passing through the ravine, they came to a hollow, like a small 
amphitheatre. 12, He found the house gone to decay — the roof fallen 
in, the windows shattered, and the doors off the hinges. 13. And now, 
sir, when you next go to the British Museum, look for a poet named 
Vaughan. 14. A heavy sea struck us on our starboard quarter, almost 
throwing us on our beam-ends. 15. He stood chuckling and rubbing his 
hands, and scarcely hearing a word the parson said. 16. The light 
struggles dimly through windows darkened by dust. 17. We sailed 
merrily forward for several days, meeting with nothing to interrupt us. 

2. Write sentences containing the past participles of six 
weak verbs ; of six strong verbs. 

/^v3t Write sentences containing a participle used as a pure 
s adjective ; a participle used as a predicate adjective ; a parti- 
ciple modified adverbially; a participle taking an object. 

4. Write ten sentences each containing a perfect participle. 
Substitute for each a clause introduced by when. 



PARTICIPIAL NOUNS 

EXERCISE 43 

(§§ 344-346, p. 144) 

Explain all examples of the nominative absolute. Substitute 
a modifying clause in each sentence. Ir* $^4\f*>*svU 

1. A carriage, dr awn by half a dozen horses, came driving at a furious 
rate, the postilions smacking their whips like mad. 2. As far as the eye 
could reach, the sea in every direction was of a deep blue color, the 
waves running high and fresh, and sparkling in the light. 3. For some 
years past there had been a difficulty about the rent, things not having / 
gone at the Dragon of Wantly as smoothly as they had used to go. 4 >r Se 
began to talk rapidly, all diffidence subdued. 5. Noon coming, and the 
Doctor not returning, Mr. Lorry advised/with Lucie. 6. The second mate 
falling ill durmg the passage, I was promoted to officer of the watch. 
<f! The dog now roused himself and sat on his haunches, his ears moving 
quickly backward and forward. 8. This done, Mazeppa spread his 
cloak. 9. She was seated alone, her arms on the table, her he^ad bent 
down. 10. There being some time upon his hands, he left his luggager at ' 
the cloak-room, and went on foot along Bedford Street to the church. 

EXERCISE 44 
(§§ 347-^ pp. 145-147) 

1. Point out the present participles, and also the verbal 
nouns in -ing (participial nouns). Show the difference. Men- 
tion any modifiers or complements used with either. 

1. The consternation was extreme. Some were for closing the gates 
and resisting ; some for submitting ; some for temporizing. 2. A troop 
of strange children ran at his heels, hooting after him, and pointing at his 
gray head. 3. The wicket opened on a stone staircase leading upward. 
4. Watching and toil were to me pleasure, for my body was strong, and 
my spirits winged. 5. The lingerings of decent pride were visible in her 
appearance. 6. His deep bass voice had a quavering in it, his eyes looked 
dim, and the lines on his face were deep. 7. There were several French 
privateers hovering on the coast. 8. He does not like talking of these 
matters to strangers. 9. Miss Matty cared much more for the circum- 
stance of her being a very good card-player. 10. His discourse was 
broken off by his man's telling him he had called a coach. 11. Swallows 
and martens skimmed twittering about the eaves. 12. I have loved, 
lived with, and left the sea without ever seeing a ship's tall fabric of 
sticks, cobwebs, and gossamer go by the board. — Conrad. 



270 EXEECISES 

13. The sexton was a meek, acquiescing little man, of a bowing, lowly 
habit ; yet he had a pleasant twinkling in his eye. 14. The rain always 
made a point of setting in just as he had some outdoor work to do. 
15. I have been employed this morning in composing a Latin motto for 
the king's clock. 16. Two more of the boats were lost by being stove 
and swamped alongside. 17. I heard the ripple washing in the reeds. 
18. After wandering through two or three streets, I found my way to 
Shakspere's birthplace. 19. Rip's heart died away at hearing of these 
sad changes in his home and friends. 20. The fish did not bite freely, 
and we frequently changed our fishing ground without bettering our 
luck. 21. Lady Niton sat blinking and speechless. 22. I cannot help 
hearing things, and reading things, and observing things, and they filJ 
me with disquietude. 23. Here was circumstance after circumstance 
goading me onward. 24. I sat staring at a book of my own making 
25. That thought actually drove out of my head the more pressing danger. 

2. Write sentences in which (1) a verbal noun and (2) a 
present participle are formed from — 

run, hunt, leap, swim, strike, find, speak, sing, shout, play, skate, 
blow, spend, listen, eat, move, translate, recite, murmur, whisper, read, 
talk, complain, paint, build, give, breathe, teach, flow, shine. 

3. Whenever it is possible, substitute either a noun or an 
infinitive for each verbal noun in your sentences. 

4. Select three of these verbal nouns, and write other sen- 
tences in which each is used (1) as a subject, (2) with a direct 
and an indirect object, (3) with an adjective modifier, (4) with 
an adverbial modifier. 



EXERCISE 45 

(§§ 354-371, pp. 148-154) 

1. Point out and parse the prepositions and conjunctions. 

In parsing a preposition, tell (1) the object, and (2) the word 
to which the preposition shows the relation of the object. 

In parsing a conjunction, indicate the words or groups of 
words which it connects, tell whether it is coordinate or sub- 
ordinate, and mention its correlative (§ 369) if it has one. 



PBEPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 271 

1. Neither witch nor warlock crossed Mordaunt's path. 2. But I will 
be bolder, and do not doubt to make it good, though a paradox, that one 
great reason why prose is not to be used in serious plays, is, because it 
is too near the nature of converse. — Dryden. 3. All down that im- 
mense vista of gloomy arches there was one blaze of scarlet and gold. 
4. No doubt, something of Shakspere's punning must be attributed to his 
age, in which direct and formal combats of wit were a favorite pastime 
of the courtly and accomplished. — Coleridge. 5. Bodily labor is of 
two kinds : either that which a man submits to for his livelihood, or that 
which he undergoes for his pleasure. — Addison. 6. Early upon the 
morrow the march was resumed. 7. The camp was broken up, and 
the troops were sent to quarters in different parts of the country. 8. 
My attention was called off for a moment by the cries of birds and the 
bleatings of sheep. 9. This is well to be weighed, that boldness is ever 
blind, for it seeth not dangers and inconveniences. — Bacon. 10. At a 
little distance from Sir Roger's house, among the ruins of an old abbey, 
there is a long walk of aged elms. 11. Then I sent you the Greek instead 
of the Persian whom you asked for? — Fitz Gerald. 12. Rowland's 
allowance at college was barely sufficient to maintain him decently, and, 
his degree nevertheless achieved, he was taken into his father's counting- 
house to do small drudgery on a proportionate stipend. 

13. Though this lady never expressed an idea, Richard was not mis- 
taken in her cleverness. 14. If I am tired, your letter will refresh me. 
15. The young ladies however, and Mr. Pecksniff likewise, remained in 
the very best of spirits in spite of these severe trials, though with some- 
thing of a mysterious understanding among themselves. 16. He went 
along almost gaily, nor felt the fatigue of the road. 

2. Write sentences in which the following words are used 
as indicated : — 

for (preposition, conjunction), then (conjunction, adverb), notwithstand- 
ing (preposition, conjunction), since (preposition, adverb, relative adverb), 
until (preposition, relative adverb), as (conjunction, relative pronoun, rela- 
tive adverb), that (conjunction, relative pronoun, demonstrative adjective, 
demonstrative pronoun), but (preposition, conjunction). 

3. Construct sentences containing either and or, neither 
and nor, whether and or, not only and hut also, both and and, 
though, if, because. 

4. Construct six sentences containing coordinate conjunc- 
tions ; six containing subordinate conjunctions ; six containing 
relative adverbs. 



272 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 46 

(§§ 372-375, pp. 155-156) 

Point out all interjections, all other parts of speech used 
here in exclamation, and all exclamatory phrases. 

1. Ring the alarum-bell ! Murder and treason ! — Shakspere. 2. Kip- 
ling is by far the most promising young man who has appeared since — 
ahem — I appeared. — Stevenson. 3. 0, to be in England ! 4. " Cour- 
age ! " he said, and pointed toward the land. — Tennyson. 5. Ah ! my 
lord Arthur, whither shall I go ? 6. Alas for my credulous fancy ! 
7. Tut, man ! we must take things as they come. 8. O day, the last of 
all my bliss on earth ! — Marlowe. 9. Adieu, fair Cadiz ! yea, a long 
adieu ! — Byron. 10. Peace, sister, peace ! 11. Fie, fie, my brother ! 

12. How now, Thersites ? what, lost in the labyrinth of thy fury ? 

13. Farewell for the present, my dear sir. 14. O Jupiter ! how weary 
are my spirits ! — Shakspere. 15. Guilty, my lord, guilty ! I confess, 
I confess ! 16. Hence, you long-1 egg' d spinners, hence ! 17. O mon- 
strous ! strange ! we are haunted ! 18. Faith, he is gone unto the 
taming school. 19. But, soft ! whom have we here ? 

20. A Tory ! a Tory ! a spy ! a refugee ! hustle him ! away with him ! 
21. What ! this gentleman will outtalk us all. 22. Up, up, Glentarkin ! 
rouse thee, ho ! — Scott. 23. And now good-bye, my dear fellow. 
24. Ahem ! you remember, friend ? Grand triumphs those, eh ? 

EXERCISE 47 
(§§ 376-392, pp. 157-162) 

1. Construct ten sentences in which the simple subject (noun 
or pronoun) is modified by an adjective clause ; ten in which 
the simple predicate is modified by an adverbial clause. 

2. Tell the construction (as subject, predicate nominative, 
object, etc.) of each noun clause in § 392. Mention the simple 
subject and predicate of each clause. 

EXERCISE 48 

(§§ 395-402, pp. 163-165) 

1. Tell whether each of the subordinate clauses expresses 
place, time, cause, or concession. Is the clause adjective or ad- 
verbial ? What introduces it ? What does it modify ? 



CLAUSES OF PLACE, TIME, ETC. 273 

1. Though often misled by prejudice and passion, he was emphatically 
an honest man. 2. When a prisoner first leaves his cell, he cannot bear 
the light of day. 3. As I walked through the wilderness of this world, 
I lighted on a certain place where was a den. — Bunyan. 4. He post- 
poned his final decision till after the Parliament should have reassembled. 
5. They gave a dismal croak or two, and hopped aside into the darkest 
corner, since it was not yet their hour to flap duskily abroad. 6. Calmly 
and sadly she waited, until the procession approached her. 7. Half the 
task was not done when the sun went down. 8. However I might be 
disposed to trust his probity, I dare not trust his prejudices. 9. After 
a little more conversation we strolled to the stable, where my horse was 
standing. 10. As we approached the house, we heard the sound of music, 
and now and then a burst of laughter. 11. His face was not cruel, though 
it was desperate. 

12. We again set out for the hut, at which we deposited our golden 
burdens. 13. It will be midnight before we arrive at our inn. 14. Though 
I was not particularly well supplied with money, I had enough for the 
expenses of my journey. 15. The day, though it began brightly, had 
long been overcast. 16. As there were no men in the company, the girls 
danced with each other. 17. Although without fear, I did not neglect 
to use all proper precautions. 18. When I return, I shall find things 
settled. 19. Clifford, as the company partook of their little banquet, 
grew to be the gayest of them all. 20. The mill where Will lived with 
his adopted parents stood in a falling valley between pinewoods and great 
mountains. 21. As Ichabod approached this fearful tree, he began to 
whistle. 22. Infected be the air whereon they ride! — Shakspere. 
23. So they were forced to go, because he was stronger than they. 

24. Since you will not help me, I must trust to myself. 25. When 
they beheld his face, they recognized Basil the blacksmith. 26. This is 
the third day since we came to Borne. 27. Amsterdam was the place 
where the leading Scotch and English assembled. 28. These considera- 
tions might well have made William uneasy, even if all the military means 
of the United Provinces had been at his absolute disposal. 29. Although 
the breeze had now utterly ceased, we had made a great deal of way 
during the night. 

2. Illustrate clauses of place, time, cause, and concession, by- 
constructing twenty sentences, five for each. 

3. Tell whether the clauses are adjective or adverbial. What 
does each modify ? 

4. See if you can replace your clauses of time by participles 
or adverbial phrases. 



274 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 49 

(§§ 403-410, pp. 166-167) 
1. Point out the clauses of purpose and those of result. 

1. The weather was so bad I could not embark that night. 2. She 
opened the casement that the cool air might blow upon her throbbing 
temples. 3. So intent were the servants upon their sports, that we had 
to ring repeatedly before we could make ourselves heard. 4. The con- 
sequence was that, according to the rules of the House, the amendment 
was lost. 5. Therefore I am going this way, as I told you, that I may 
be rid of my burden. 6. Tess's friends lived so far off that none could 
conveniently have been present at the ceremony. 7. Sometimes I was 
afraid lest I should be charged with ingratitude. 8. There is such an 
echo among the old ruins and vaults that, if you stamp but a little louder 
than ordinary, you hear the sound repeated. — Addison. 9. They durst 
not speak without premeditation, lest they should be convicted of dis- 
content or sorrow. 10. My purpose was, to admit no testimony of liv- 
ing authors, that I might not be misled by partiality, and that none of 
my contemporaries might have reason to complain. — Johnson. 11. It 
is King Richard's pleasure that you die undegraded. 

2. Write five sentences containing each a clause of purpose ; 
of result ; an infinitive clause expressing purpose. 

3. Write ten sentences in which the infinitive (without a 
subject) expresses purpose. 

4. Review Exercise 40. 

EXERCISE 50 

(§§ 411-427, pp. 167-172) 

1. Tell whether the conditional clauses in the following sen- 
tences are non-committal or contrary to fact, and whether they 
represent present, past, or future condition. 

1. Should Hayley be with you, tell him I have given my friend 
Mr. Rose an introductory letter to him. 2. If the judgment against 
him was illegal, it ought to have been reversed. If it was legal, there 
was no ground for remitting any part of it. 3. If I ever saw horror in 
the human face, it was there. 4. His affliction would have been insupport- 
able, had not he been comforted by the daily visits and conversations of 
his friend. 5. We perish if they hear a shot. — Scott. 6. Can Freedom 



CONDITIONAL CLAUSES 275 

breathe if Ignorance reign ? — Holmes. 7. If power be in the hands of 
men, it will sometimes be abused. 8. If hopes were dupes, fears may- 
be liars. — Clough. 9. If you write to Moore, will you tell him that I 
shall answer his letter the moment I can muster time and spirits ? 10. If 
you have any good news to tell, it will not be unwelcome ; if any bad, 
you need not be afraid. 11. I feel quite as much bored with this fool- 
ery as it deserves, and more than I should be, if I had not a headache. 
12. Will you let me offer you this little book ? If I had anything better, 
it should be yours. 

13. I shall hope, if we can agree as to dates, to come to you sometime 
in May. 14. If I could only get to work, we could live here with com- 
fort. 15. If he had been left to himself, he would have whistled life 
away in perfect contentment. 16. If this frolic should lay me up with 
a fit of rheumatism, I shall have a blessed time with Dame Yan Winkle. 

17. I know that two and two make four, and should be glad to prove it, if 
I could, — though, I must say, if by any sort of process I could convert 
two and two into five, it would give me much greater pleasure. — Byron. 

18. I would not say this if I could help it. 19. If you are disposed to 
write — write ; and if not, I shall forgive your silence, and you will not 
quarrel with mine. 20. Had not exercise been absolutely necessary for 
our well-being, nature would not have made the body so proper for it. — 
Addison. 21. Nothing will ever be attempted, if all possible objections 
must first be overcome. — Johnson. 22. If fashion gives the word, every 
distinction of beauty, complexion, or stature ceases. — Goldsmith. 

2. Write twenty sentences, each containing a conditional 
clause. Tell whether each condition refers to present, past, or 
future time. Which of them are contrary to fact ? 



EXERCISE 51 

(§§ 428-429, p. 173) 

1. Point out the clauses of comparison and explain such 
forms of verbs or pronouns as may require comment. 

1. Dull as a flower without the sun, he sat down upon a stone. 2. He 
sighed as if he would break his heart. 3. The modern steamship advances 
upon a still and overshadowed sea with a pulsating tremor of her frame, 
an occasional clang in her depths, as if she had an iron heart in her iron 
body. — Conrad. 4. It would have been as difficult, however, to follow 
up the stream of Donatello's ancestry to its dim source, as travellers have 



276 EXEECISES 

found it to reach the mysterious fountains of the Nile, 5. I will become 
as liberal as you. 6. The triumph was as destructive to the victorious as 
to the vanquished. 7. The public conduct of Milton must be approved 
or condemned, according as the resistance of the people to Charles the 
First shall appear to be justifiable or criminal. 8. There was no one in 
all Clavering who read so many novels as Madame Fribsby. 9. No kind 
of power is more formidable than the power of making men ridiculous. — 
Macaulay. 

10. The leader of the orchestra was sawing away at his violin as sav- 
agely as if he were calling on his company to rush up and seize a battery 
of guns. — Black. 11. He shouts as if he were trying his voice against 
a northwest gale of wind. 12. The playground seemed smaller than 
when I used to sport about it. 13. The blood in me ran cold, and I drew 
in my breath as if I had been struck. 14. There are few things more 
formidable than the unwonted anger of a good-natured man. — Miller. 
15. Nor was Lochiel less distinguished by intellectual than by bodily 
vigor. 16. He showed less wisdom than virtue. 17. He was as cour- 
ageous an animal as ever scoured the woods. 18. As fierce a beak and 
talon as ever struck — as strong a wing as ever beat, belonged to Swift. 

— Thackeray. 

19. Homer's description of war had as much truth as poetry requires. 

— Macaulay. 20. Of all the objects I have ever seen, there is none 
which affects my imagination so much as the sea. — Addison. 21. f f Some- 
body must go," murmured Mrs. Heathcliff, more kindly than I expected. 

22. We do not so often disappoint others as ourselves. — Johnson. 

23. The battle raged as fiercely on the lake as on the land. 24. The 
young man looked down on me from the corner of his eyes, for all the 
world as if there were some mortal feud unavenged between us. — 
E. Bronte. 

2. Write ten sentences containing as if with a subjunctive 

3. Insert personal pronouns of the first or third person. 

1. You are much stronger than . 

2. Your anger hurts yourself more than it hurts . 

3. You are not so studious as . 

4. He was quite as much to blame as . 

5. I blame myself rather than . 

6. You should rather blame yourself than . 

7. How much older are you than ? 

8. Is Jack more ambitious than ? 

9. Do you wish to please yourself more than ? 

10. Your conduct was less censurable than . 



INDIRECT DISCOURSE 277 

EXERCISE 52 

(§§ 430-436, pp. 173-176) 

1. Change the direct statements to indirect discourse, prefix- 
ing He said. Thus, — 

Supper was announced shortly after my arrival. 

He said that supper was announced shortly after his arrival. 

Be careful to make the proper changes in person and tense. 

1. Supper was announced shortly after my arrival. 2. Misery loves 
company. 3. Iron floats in mercury. 4. The grime and sordidness of 
the House of the Seven Gables seem to have vanished. 5. Nothing is to 
be seen. 6. Straws show which way the wind blows. 7. I remained 
undecided whether or not to follow my servant. 8. Rest of mind and 
body seems to have reestablished my health. 9. The fortifications consist 
of a simple wall overgrown with grass and weeds. 10. Fire is a good serv- 
ant but a bad master. 11. Not a cheer was heard ; not a member ven- 
tured to second the motion. 12. The most rigid discipline is maintained. 

13. Without our consent, such an expedition cannot legally be undertaken. 

14. The newspapers will happily save me the trouble of relating minute 
particulars. 

15. The ringing of bells is at an end ; the rumbling of the carriages 
has ceased ; the pattering of feet is heard no more. 16. My mind has 
been much disturbed, and too agitated for conversation. 17. While all 
this is taking place within the Towers, vast bodies of people are assem- 
bling without. 18. The spelling and handwriting are those of a man 
imperfectly educated. 19. I have an unconquerable repugnance to return 
to my chamber. 20. I like to see a man know his own mind. 

2. Change into a direct statement each clause that is in the 
indirect discourse. Mention the construction of the clause (as 
subject, object, etc.). 

1. The booming of a gun told them that the last yacht had rounded 
the lightship. 2. All of a sudden she thought she heard something move 
behind her. 3. Though they spoke French fluently, I perceived that it 
was not their native language. 4. I soon found that, in making the 
acquaintance of the young man, I had indeed made a valuable^ acquisi- 
tion. 5. I thanked him, but said that Dr. Johnson had come with me 
from London, and I must return to the inn and drink tea with him ; that 
my name was Boswell, and I had travelled with him in the Hebrides. 
6. I discovered that he was wonderfully fond of interfering with otbet 



278 EXEECISES 

people's business. 7. I had heard that he had been unhappy, that he 
had roamed about, a fevered, distempered man, taking pleasure in noth- 
ing. 8. I had observed that the old woman for some time past had 
shown much less anxiety about the book. 9. I learned that times had 
gone hard with her. 10. I perceived that the objects which had excited 
my curiosity were not trees, but immense upright stones. 

11. That no man can legally promise what he cannot legally perform 
is a self-evident proposition. — Mackintosh. 12. That there are some 
duties superior to others will be denied by no one. 13. It can hardly be 
doubted that the highest obligation of a citizen is that of contributing to 
preserve the community. 14. Reports had been brought back that six 
Christians were lingering in captivity in the interior of the country. 
15. If it be true that, by giving our confidence by halves, we can scarcely 
hope to make a friend, it is equally true that, by withdrawing it when 
given, we shall make an enemy. — Prescott. 16. He concluded with 
the assurance that the whole fleet would sail on the following day. 
17. Pen protested that he had not changed in the least. 

3. Write five sentences in which indirect discourse is ex- 
pressed by an infinitive clause (§ 435). 



EXERCISE 53 

(§ 436, p. 176) 

1. Change each of the sentences quoted at the end of § 436 
into one of the other two passive constructions described in 
that section. 

2. Write ten sentences in each of which a clause in the 
indirect discourse is the subject of a passive verb. 

EXERCISE 54 

(§§ 438-439, pp. 177-178) 

1. Explain the use of shall, should, will, or would in each 
instance. Change the indirect discourse to the direct. 

1. I believe I should like to live in a small house just outside a pleasant 
English town all the days of my life. — Fitz Gerald. 2. The sultan 
said he would oblige us with donkeys or anything else if we would only 



INDIRECT DISCOUESE 279 

give him a few more pretty cloths. — Speke. 3. I think that I should 
like it to be always summer. 4. He often told his friends afterwards, 
that unless he had found out this piece of exercise, he verily believed he 
should have lost his senses. — Addison. 5. Do you remember once say- 
ing to me that you hoped you should never leave Brentham ? 6. I knew 
that he would not have accepted office in 1841-1842 if he could have 
avoided it. 7. Promise you will give him this little book of drawings. 
8. I have often thought that there has rarely passed a life of which a 
judicious and faithful narrative would not be useful. — Johnson. 9. She 
said, very quietly, that she wished to speak to him after breakfast, and 
that he would find her in her sitting room. 10. Lady Annabel had 
promised the children that they should some day ride together to 
Marringhurst. 

11. One of them told us that he would make us a canoe. 12. Promise, 
Marion — pray promise you will not even mention my name to him when 
you write next. 13. He felt that no argument of his would be of any 
use. 14. I know very well that I shall sign my own death warrant on 
the day when I retire from business. 15. She knew very well now that 
Grandcourt would not go without her ; but if he must tyrannize over 
her, he should not do it precisely in the way he would choose. She would 
oblige him to stay in the hotel. 16. They were afraid that they should 
not long be able to put him off with promises. 17. Bungay replied that 
he should be happy to have dealings with Mr. Pendennis. 

2. Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary (shall or should, 
or will or would). 

1. Your father said that he be glad to see me. 

2. I told him that I be obliged to dismiss him. 

3. I wrote that we gladly accept his invitation. 

4. My friends believed that I not be willing to go. 

5. Kobert thinks that he have to work evenings. 

6. Kobert says that I have to work evenings. 

7. They say that Robert work evenings, although he ought not. 

8. I promised that Robert not work evenings. 

9. I told Mary that I was sure she succeed. 

10. Mary said she had no doubt that I succeed. 

11. Mary will say that she has no doubt I succeed. 

12. I repeat that I have no doubt you succeed. 

13. He declared that you go, even against your will. 

14. The report is that we dissolve partnership. 

3. Change the indirect statements in the sentences which 
you have just made to direct statements. 



280 EXERCISES 

EXERCISE 55 

(§§ 440-445, pp. 179-181) 

1. Some, but not all, of the following sentences contain in- 
direct questions. Point out these questions and tell what 
introduces them (interrogative pronoun, interrogative adverb, 
subordinate conjunction). Mention the construction of each 
interrogative clause (as subject, object, etc.). 

2. Turn each indirect question into a direct question. 

3. Point out such relative clauses as you find in the sen- 
tences. Are they adjective or adverbial modifiers ? 

1. Warrington did not know what his comrade's means were. 2. He 
could scarcely tell whether she was imbued with sunshine, or whether it 
was a glow of happiness that shone out of her. 3. I started the ques- 
tion whether duelling was consistent with moral duty. — Boswell. 
4. The pilgrims then began to inquire if there was no other way to the 
gate. 5. He knew not what to make of the letter. 6. I hardly heard 
what he said. 7. Every one knows practically what are the constituents 
of health or of virtue. — Newman. 8. Think calmly over what I have 
written. 9. Then she asked him whence he was and whither he was go- 
ing ; and he told her. 10. What to expect, he knew not. 11. Theseus 
wondered what this immense giant could be. 12. Hack says it was 
Mrs. Bungay who caused all the mischief. 13. The question was how 
best to extricate the army from its perilous position. 14. Addison was 
a delightful companion when he was at his ease. 15. I doubt whether 
the wisest of us know what our own motives are. 

16. I puzzled my head for some time to find out which of the two 
cases was the more applicable. 17. I returned to the studies which I had 
neglected. 18. I cannot tell how I dared to say what I did. 19. How 
long he slept he could not say. 20. Fanny, in dismay at such an unprec- 
edented question, did not know which way to look, or how to be pre- 
pared for an answer. — Miss Austen. 21. What my course of life will 
be when I return to England is very doubtful. 22. I cannot tell you how 
vaingloriously I walked the streets. 23. Then I told what a tall, up- 
right, graceful person their great-grandmother Field once was. 24. When 
the bean-vines began to flower on the poles, there was one particular 
variety which bore a vivid scarlet blossom. 25. I know not which way 
I must look. 26. Why she submitted, Mrs. Turpin could not have told 
you. 27. I began to become conscious what a strange den that sanctum 
was. 28. How Ferguson escaped, was, and still is, a mystery. 29. How 
far he felt the force of this obligation will appear in the sequel. 



INDIRECT QUESTIONS 281 

4. Write sentences containing indirect questions introduced 
by who, which, what, when, how, why, whether, if. 

5. Fill the blanks with who or whom. Tell, in each sentence, 
whether who or whom is an interrogative or a relative pronoun. 

1. I know it was that broke the window. 

2. I know it was that you saw. 

3. I know you saw. 

4. I know the person you saw. 

5. I asked if the man we saw was Douglas. 

6. I asked if the boy broke the window was Archer. 

7. I know it was you overheard. 

8. Tell me it is that I resemble. 

9. Tell me I resemble. 

10. Tell me you think I resemble. 

11. Tell me if I resemble anybody you know. 

6. Turn all the indirect questions which you have just writ- 
ten into direct questions. 

7. Construct sentences in which each of the verbs (or verb- 
phrases) is followed by an indirect question : — 

asked, tell, inquire, is learning, see, might discover, had heard, have 
found, doubt, have perceived, is thinking, wonders, knew, was told, under- 
stands, to comprehend, is, could ascertain, has reported, will announce. 



EXERCISE 56 
(§447, p. 182) 

1. Turn each indirect question into the direct form. Ex- 
plain the use of shall, should, will, would. 

1. "I doubt, 1 ' said Donatello, " whether they will remember my voice 
now." 2. I did not know whether to resent his language or pursue my 
explanations. 3. I clambered to its apex, and then felt much at a loss 
as to what should be next done. 4. How we shall live I cannot imagine. 
5. When I shall get to town I cannot divine, but it will be between this 
and Christmas. 6. I scarcely know which of us three would be the 
sorriest. 7. I can feel for you, because I know what I should feel in the 
same situation. 8. Let us see if she will know you. 9. I wonder how 



282 EXEECISES 

you will answer me a year hence. 10. I asked if Georgiana would ac- 
company her. 11. You must see the carriage, Jane, and tell me if you 
don't think it will suit Mrs. Eochester exactly, and whether she won't 
look like Queen Boadicea, leaning back against those purple cushions. — 
C. Bronte. 12. Catherine had no idea why her father should be crosser 
or less patient in his ailing condition than he was in his prime. 13. Mr. 
Hindi ey will have to proceed to extremities, — see if he won't ! 

2. Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary (shall, should, 
will, would). Then change each indirect question to the direct 
form. 

1. Tom asked me if I like to go with him. 

2. They inquired whether I prefer to go or to stay. 

3. She asked me if I help her. 

4. Tell me whether he consent or not. 

5. He wishes to know if you recommend him. 

6. I was in doubt whether I succeed or fail. 

7. I do not know whether you find her at home or at her uncle's. 

8. He is in doubt whether or not he get the appointment. 

9. We think we like to sail on the twentieth. 

10. He thinks he like to be a farmer. 



EXERCISE 57 
(§§ 448-453, pp. 183-186) 

1. Mention the substantives that make up the compound 
subjects and the verbs that make up the compound predicates 
in § 450 ; in Exercise 4. 

2. See if you can make any of the sentences compound by 
inserting personal pronouns as subjects. 

3. Divide each compound sentence in § 452 and in Exer- 
cise 6 into the independent coordinate clauses that compose it. 

4. Make each sentence in § 450 complex by inserting or add- 
ing a subordinate clause. Is your clause adjective or adverbial ? 
What does it modify ? 

5. Divide each complex sentence in Exercises 17, 25, 39 (2), 
48-51, into the independent (main) clause and the subordinate 
clause. 



ANALYSIS 283 

EXERCISE 58 

(§§ 458-461, pp. 188-190) 

1. Analyze (according to the directions in §§ 458-461) the 
simple sentences in Exercise 1. In analyzing, describe each 
sentence as declarative, interrogative, etc. If the sentence is 
imperative, supply the subject. 

2. Analyze the compound and the complex sentences in 
Exercises 6, 17, 25, 39(2), 48-51. 

3. Analyze the compound complex sentences in §§ 456-457, 
515. 

EXERCISE 59 

(§§ 462-473, pp. 191-196) 

1. Point out the adjectives used as modifiers of the subject. 
Substitute for each an adjective phrase ; an adjective clause 
(§§467-468). 

1. Standing in the door was a tearful child. 2. A tall Scot shut off 
my view. 3. An iron mask concealed the prisoner's face. 4. Honorable 
men pay their debts. 5. A tumble-down shed stood in the hollow. 6. A 
three-cornered hat was cocked over one of his ears. 7. The American 
Indians are becoming extinct. 8. An experienced stenographer should 
spell correctly. 9. A deep fosse or ditch was drawn round the whole 
building. 10. The royal army was assembled at Salisbury. 11. The mid- 
day meal was excellent. 12. The morning mist lies heavy upon yonder 
chain of islands. 

2. Construct sentences, using the following adjective phrases 
as modifiers of the subject : — 

of great height ; in a red hat ; with black hair ; from Cairo ; to 
Indianapolis ; from India ; with high gables ; of brilliant plumage ; on 
the rear platform ; in a state of intense agitation ; between the two 
ships ; over the mountain ; on the summit of the tower. 

3. Substitute (if possible) an adjective clause for each adjec- 
tive phrase in the sentences you have just written. 

4. Point out all participles used as modifiers of the simple 
subject in Exercise 42. Write ten sentences containing such 
modifiers (§ 469). 



284 EXEKCISES 

5. Construct ten sentences similar to those in § 470 (with 
infinitives modifying the simple subject). 

6. Write ten sentences containing nouns or pronouns in the 
possessive case used as modifiers of the subject (§ 471). 

7. Write ten sentences containing nouns in apposition with 
the subject (§§ 88, 5 ; 472) ; five in which a noun clause is thus 
used (§§ 386, 473). 

EXERCISE 60 

(§§ 474-481, pp. 196-199) 

1. Point out all the adverbs used to modify the simple predi- 
cate. Substitute for each an adverbial phrase or clause. 

1. The witness chose his words deliberately. 2. The old man moved 
slowly down the street. 3. I carefully avoided making that promise. 
4. Do not speak so loud. 5. I am eagerly looking forward to your visit. 
6. That golf ball must have hit him hard. 7. Allan has played in public 
twice. 8. I shall call you early. 9. We often see your eccentric friend. 
10. The priest shook his head doubtfully. 11. Your father barely escaped 
drowning. 12. The next morning Chester awoke late. 13. The accident 
happened here. 14. The captain had gone below. 15. Marion refuses 
to go by coach unless she can sit outside. 16. Frank left home three 
years ago, and has not been heard from since. 17. Look yonder and tell 
us where the path lies. 

18. We were then presented to Governor Gore. 19. I have not been 
there since April. 20. Bruce was afterward ashamed of his discourage- 
ment. 21. The sun will soon set. 22. You are expected to arrive in 
good season hereafter. 23. Alice cannot spell correctly. 24. The Indian 
suddenly disappeared. 25. The girl laughed carelessly. 26. The moose 
fell heavily to the earth. 27. He passionately longs to see Italy. 28. All 
foreigners seem to speak rapidly. 29. Edith listened attentively. 

2. Write ten sentences in which the simple predicate is modi- 
fied by an infinitive (§§ 323, 477) ; by an adverbial objective 
or by a phrase containing one (§§ 109, 478) ; by a nominative 
absolute (§§345, 479); by an indirect object (§§105, 480); 
by a cognate object (§§ 108, 481). 

3. Point out the complementary infinitives and the infinitives 
of purpose in Exercise 40, and tell what verb each modifies. 



ANALYSIS 285 

EXERCISE 61 

(§§ 482-493, pp. 200-204) 

1. Point out the complements and describe each (as direct 
object, predicate nominative, etc.). Analyze the sentences. 

1. The most amazing wonder of the deep is its unfathomable cruelty. 
— Conrad. 2. Music is Love in search of a word. — Lanier. 3. The 
destination of the fleet was still a matter of conjecture. 4. The reports 
from the front made Washington anxious. 5. Plato says that the pun- 
ishment which the wise suffer who refuse to take part in the government, 
is, to live under the government of worse men. — Emerson. 6. I thought 
your book an imposture ; I think it an imposture still. — Johnson. 
7. Moses chose able men out of all Israel and made them heads over 
the people. 8. The old gray porter raised his torch. 9. This you will 
call impudence. 10. Firm and irrevocable is my doom. 11. In return 
for mere board and lodging, Topham became Mr. Starkey's assistant. 
12. It was they who attacked us. 

13. Serene will be our days and bright. 14. Warwick thought the 
situation awkward, but he held his peace. 15. If there were not too 
great a risk of the dispersion of their fleet, I should think their putting 
to sea a mere manoeuver to deceive. — Irving. 16. I thought "Alad- 
din " capital fun. — Stevenson. 17. The faces of the father and mother 
had a sober gladness ; the children laughed ; the eldest daughter was the 
image of Happiness at seventeen ; and the aged grandmother, who sat 
knitting in the warmest place, was the image of Happiness grown old. 
18. His stories were what frightened people worst of all. 19. The old 
man was nervous, fidgety, and very pale. 20. I am growing old, the 
grey hairs thicken upon me, my joints are less supple, and, in mind as 
well as body, I am less enterprising than in former years. — Southey. 
21. I was uneasy about my letter. 22. Confidence is almost everything 
in war. 23. He thinks me a troublesome fellow. 

24. At the end of this strange season, Burns gloomily sums up his 
gains and losses. 25. Little fire grows great with little wind. — Shak- 
spere. 26. As he rose to walk, he found himself stiff in the joints. 
27. Noise had been my native element. 28. I caught tantalizing glimpses 
of green fields, shut from me by dull lines of high-spiked palings. 29. One 
house in a back street was bright with the cheerful glare of lights. 

2. Write ten simple sentences, each containing the direct 
object of a verb ; a predicate objective ; a predicate nominative ,• 
a predicate adjective. Analyze your sentences. 



286 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 62 

(§§ 494-497, pp. 205-206) 

1. Point out any modifiers of complements in the sentences 
called for in Exercise 61, 2. Introduce other modifiers of com- 
plements if you can without injuring the sentences. 

2. Write sentences similar to those in § 492, taking care to 
include in each a complement modified. 

3. Write ten sentences, each containing a substantive com- 
plement modified by an adjective clause (§ 496) ; an adjective 
complement modified by an adverbial clause (§ 497). Analyze 
your sentences. 

4. Point out all modifiers of complements in Exercises 12 
and 22. 

5. Analyze the sentences in § 495. 

EXERCISE 63 

(§§ 498-500, pp. 207-208) 

1. Write ten sentences illustrating adjectives (or adjective 
phrases) modified either by adverbs or by groups of words used 
adverbially. 

2. Write ten sentences, each containing a possessive noun 
modified ; an appositive modified ; an adverbial phrase modified. 

3. Write ten sentences illustrating the use of adjective or 
adverbial clauses as modifiers of modifiers. 

4. Analyze the sentences in § 498. 

EXERCISE 64 

(§§ 501-503, p. 209) 

Point out the independent elements. Tell whether each is an 
interjection, a vocative (nominative by direct address), an ex- 
clamatory nominative, or a parenthetical expression. Analyze 
the sentences. 



ANALYSIS 287 

1. The king, Melfort said, was determined to be severe. 2. Mary, 
go and call the cattle home. 3. Pardon me, my dear fellow. 4. Be- 
tween ourselves, I shall not be sorry to have a quiet evening. 5. Knowl- 
edge, indeed, and science express purely intellectual ideas. — Newman. 
6. Oh ! oh ! pictures don't pay. 7. To make a long story short, the com- 
pany broke up. 8. True, our friend is already in his teens. 9. To use 
a ready-made similitude, we might liken universal history to a magic 
web. — Carlyle. 10. Poor fellows ! they only did as they were or- 
dered, I suppose. 11. The world, as we said, has been unjust to him. 
12. Therefore, good Brutus, be prepared to hear. 

13. Peace ! count the clock. 14. Excuse, no doubt, is in readiness for 
such omission. 15. The lord — for so I understood he was — looked at 
me with an air of surprise. 16. Lo, CsBsar is afraid. 17. Delay not, 
Csesar ; read it instantly. 18. My counsel, I need not say, made full 
use of this hint. 19. My small services, you remember, were of no use. 
20. I knew — one knows everything in dreams — that they had been 
slain. 21. I knew it, I say, to be a fallacy. 22. Liberty ! freedom I 
tyranny is dead ! 23. Stay, ho ! and let us hear Mark Antony. 

EXERCISE 65 

(§§ 504-523, pp. 210-219) 

1. Analyze the simple sentences in § 509 ; the compound 
sentences in § 511 ; the complex sentences in § 512 ; the com- 
pound complex sentences in §§ 514-515. 

2. Study the examples in §§ 517-523, and explain their 
structure orally. Tell whether the various subordinate clauses 
are simple, compound, or complex, and why. Give the con- 
struction of each. Analyze the sentences. 

3. Construct five complex sentences on the principle of 
§ 517; of § 520; of § 521; of § 522. 

EXERCISE 66 

(§§ 524-526, pp. 220-223) 

1. Study the sentences in §§ 525-526 until you can explain 
their structure. 

2. Find, in some good English or American author, ten sen- 
tences of considerable length and explain their structure. 



288 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 67 

(§§ 527-533, pp. 224-226) 

1. Analyze the sentences in § 528. Explain the ellipsis in 
each sentence. 

2. Supply the word or words omitted in each of the elliptical 
sentences in § 533 (p. 226). Explain the ellipsis in each 
sentence. 

3. Analyze the sentences in § 533. 

4. Write five sentences illustrating each of the following 
kinds of ellipsis : — (1) the subject of an imperative ; (2) a 
relative pronoun ; (3) the conjunction that ; (4) the copula 
and its subject with while, when, though, if; (5) ellipsis in a 
clause with as or than. 

EXERCISE 68 

(§§ 448-526, pp. 183-223) 

The following compound, complex, and compound complex 
sentences will give further practice in analysis and in study of 
the relations of clauses. 

I. Deerslayer hesitated a single instant ere he plunged into the bushes. 
2. The mind of man is like a clock that is always running down and 
requires to be as constantly wound up. — Hazlitt. 3. He became sen- 
sible that his life was still in imminent peril. 4. A young author is 
apt to run into a confusion of mixed metaphors, which leave the sense 
disjointed, and distract the imagination. — Goldsmith. 5. Everybody 
kept his head as best he might and scrambled for whatever he could get. 
6. The dialogue had been held in so very low a whisper that not a word 
of it had reached the young lady's ears. 7. The captain screwed his 
lips up, and drummed on the table, but he did not speak. 8. Poor 
Andrew Fern had heard that his townsman's sloop had been captured 
by a privateer. 9. Through the grounds we went, and very pretty I 
thought them. 10. He sometimes made doleful complaint that there 
were no stagecoaches, nowadays. 

II. Lights gleamed in the distance, and people were already astir. 
12. That few men celebrated for theoretic wisdom live with conformity 
to their precepts, must be readily confessed. — Johnson. 13. Down 
went Pew with a cry that rang high into the night. 14. Pluck the dog 



ANALYSIS 289 

off, lest he throttle him. 15. I knew that the worst of men have their 
good points. 16. A rumor spread that the enemy was approaching in 
great force. 17. Mr. Henry went and walked at the low end of the 
hall without reply ; for he had an excellent gift of silence. 18. It is a 
bright brisk morning, and the loaded wagons are rolling cheerfully past 
my window. 19. The musician was an old gray-headed negro, who had 
been the itinerant orchestra of the neighborhood for more than half a 
century. 20. After he had waited three hours, the general's patience 
was exhausted, and, as he learned that the Mexicans were busy in prepa- 
rations for defence, he made immediate dispositions for the assault. — 
Prescott. 

21. As I rode along near the coast, I kept a very sharp lookout in the 
lanes and woods. 22. Every man desires to live long, but no man would 
be old. — Swift. 23. If my face had been pale the moment before, it 
now glowed almost to burning. 24. The sentinels who paced the ram- 
parts announced that the vanguard of the hostile army was in sight. 
25. Her heart was happy and her courage rose. 26. There is a report 
that Clifford is to be secretary. 27. The season of winter, when, from 
the shortness of the daylight, labor becomes impossible, is in Zetland the 
time of revel, feasting, and merriment. 28. Every log which is carried 
past us by the current has come from an undiscovered country. 29. The 
fair heavens shone over the windy blue seas, and the green island of 
Ulva lay basking in the sunlight. 30. The greatest event was, that 
the Miss Jenkynses had purchased a new carpet for the drawing room.. 

31. My grandfather made a bow to the motley assemblage as he entered. 

32. Talk to a man about himself, and he is generally captivated. 

33. Pen was as elated as if somebody had left him a fortune. 34. When 
the morning dawned, the king gazed with admiration at the city, which 
he hoped soon to add to his dominions. — Irving. 35. No one doubts 
that the sloth and the ant-eater, the kangaroo and the opossum, the tiger 
and the badger, the tapir and the rhinoceros, are respectively members 
of the same orders. — Huxley. 36. The traveller, a man of middle age, 
wrapped in a gray frieze cloak, quickened his pace when he had reached 
the outskirts of the town, for a gloomy extent of nearly four miles lay 
between him and his home. 37. It was a scene on which I had often 
looked down, but where I had never before beheld a human figure. 
38. He found that he had undertaken a task which was beyond his 
power. 39. In the Dutch garden is a fine bronze bust of Napoleon, 
which Lord Holland put up in 1817, while Napoleon was a prisoner at 
Saint Helena. 

40. The girl's was not one of those natures which are most attracted 
by what is strange and exceptional in human character. 41. Mrs. Pen- 
dennis was sure that he would lead her dear boy into mischief, if Pen 
went to the same college with him. 42. I had been some time at sea 



290 EXERCISES 

before I became aware of the fact that hearing plays a perceptible part 
in gauging the force of the wind. 43. The Macedonian conqueror, 
when he was once invited to hear a man that sang like a nightingale, 
replied with contempt, that he had heard the nightingale herself ; and 
the same treatment must every man expect, whose praise is that he imi- 
tates another. — Johnson. 44. Tie a couple of strings across a board 
and set it in your window, and you have an instrument which no artist's 
harp can rival. — Emerson. 45. I was on the point of asking what part 
of the country he had chosen for his retreat. 46. That no man can law- 
fully promise what he cannot lawfully do is a self-evident proposition. — 
Mackintosh. 

47. How far the governor contributed towards the expenses of the 
outfit is not very clear. 48. The next epoch in the history of Kussia 
was that of Peter the Great, whose genius overcame the obstacles conse- 
quent on the remoteness of its situation, and opened to its people the 
career of European industry, arts, and arms. — Alison. 49. As the 
chase lengthens, the sportsmen drop off, till at last the foremost hunts- 
man is left alone, and his horse, overcome with fatigue, stumbles and 
dies in a rocky valley. — Jeffrey. 50. The Lowland knight, though 
startled, repeats his defiance ; and Sir Roderick, respecting his valor, by 
a signal dismisses his men to their concealment, and assures him anew 
of his safety. 51. I stood awe-struck — I cannot tell how long — watch- 
ing how the live flame-snakes crept and hissed, and leapt and roared, 
and rushed in long horizontal jets from stack to stack before the howling 
wind, and fastened their fiery talons on the barn-eaves, and swept over 
the peaked roofs, and hurled themselves in fiery flakes into the yard 
beyond. — Kingsley. 52. When I was at Grand Cairo, I picked up 
several Oriental manuscripts, which I have still by me. — Addison. 
53. Often have I wondered at the temerity of my father, who, in spite 
of an habitual general respect which we all in common manifested 
towards him, would venture now and then to stand up against him in 
some argument touching their youthful days. — Lamb. 54. By all means 
begin your folio ; even if the doctor does not give you a year, even if he 
hesitates about a month, make one brave push and see what can be 
accomplished in a week. — Stevenson. 



APPENDIX 

LISTS OF VERBS 

In the first list, only such verb forms are given as are indis- 
putably correct in accordance with the best prose usage of the 
present day. The pupil may feel perfectly safe, therefore, in 
using the forms registered in this list. 1 

A few verbs (marked *) which are seldom or never used in ordinary 
language are included in this list. These have various irregularities. 
A few verbs are partly strong and partly weak. 

Weak verbs are printed in italics. 

For the modal auxiliaries, see page 299. 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Particip] 


abide 




abode 




abode 


am (subjunc.) 


be) 


was 




been 


arise 




arose 




arisen 


awake 




awoke, 


awaked 


awaked 


bear 




bore 




borne, born 2 


beat 




beat 




beaten 


beget 




begot 




begotten 


begin 




began 




begun 


behold 




beheld 




beheld 



1 The omission of a form from the list, then, does not necessarily indicate 
that it is wrong or even objectionable. There is considerable diversity of usage 
with regard to the strong verbs, and to state the facts at length would take 
much space. An attempt to include archaic, poetical, and rare forms in the 
same list with the usual modern forms is sure to mislead the pupil. Hence the 
list here presented is confined to forms about whose correctness there can be 
no difference of opinion. Archaic and poetical tense-forms are treated later 
(pp. 297-299). 

2 Born is used only in the passive sense of " born into the world." 

291 



292 



APPENDIX 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


bend 


bent 


bent 


bereave 


bereft, bereaved 


bereft, bereaved 1 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bet 


bet 


bet 


bid (command) 


bade 


bidden 


bid (money) 


bid 


bid 


bind 


bound 


bound 


bite 


bit 


bitten 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


bless (see p. 298) 






blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built 


built 


burn (see p. 298) 






burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


chide 


chid 


chidden 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


*cleave (split) 2 


cleft, clove 


cleft, cleaved (cloven, adj.) 


cling 


clung 


clung 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


crow (see p. 299) 






curse (see p. 298) 






cut 


cut 


cut 


dare (see p. 299) 






deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dig 


dug 


dug 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 



1 The adjective form is bereaved : as, " The bereaved father." 

2 Cleave, M to adhere," has cleaved in both the past tense and the past parti- 
ciple, and also an archaic past form clave. 



LISTS OF VERBS 



293 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


dream (see 


p. 298) 






dress (see p 


.298) 






drink 




drank 


drunk (drunken, adj.) 


drive 




drove 


driven 


dwell 




dwelt 


dwelt 


eat 




ate 


eaten 


engrave (see 


j p. 299) 






fall 




fell 


fallen 


feed 




fed 


fed 


feel 




felt 


felt 


fight 




fought 


fought 


find 




found 


found 


flee 




fled 


fed 


fling 




flung 


flung 


fly 




flew 


flown 


forbear 




forbore 


forborne 


forget 




forgot 


forgotten 


forsake 




forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 




froze 


frozen 


freight (see 


p. 299) 






get 




got 


got 1 


gird (see p. 


298) 






give 




gave 


given 


go 




went 


gone 


grave (see p 


l 299) 






grind 




ground 


ground 


grow 




grew 


grown 


hang 




hung, hanged 2. 


hung, hanged 2 


have 




had 


had 


hear 




heard 


heard 


heave 




hove, heaved 8 


hove, heaved 8 


hew 




hewed 


hewn 



1 The archaic participle gotten is used in the compounds begotten and for- 
gotten, and as an adjective (" ill-gotten gains ")• Many good speakers also use 
it instead of the past participle got, but got is the accepted modern form. 

2 Hanged is used only of execution by hanging. 

8 Usage varies with the context. We say, " The crew hove the cargo over- 
board," but not " She hove a sigh." 



294 



APPENDIX 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


hide 




hid 


hidden 


hit 




hit 


hit 


hold 




held 


held 


hurt 




hurt 


hurt 


keep 




kept 


kept 


kneel (see p 


, 298) 






knit (see p. 


298) 






know 




knew 


known 


lade 1 




laded 


laded, laden 


lay 




laid 


laid 


lead 




led 


led 


learn (see p 


, 298) 






leave 




left 


left 


lend 




lent 


lent 


let 




let 


let 


lie (recline^ 


) 2 


lay 


lain 


light 




lighted or lit 3 


lighted or lit 3 


lose 




lost 


lost 


make 




made 


made 


mean 




meant 


meant 


meet 




met 


met 


mow (see p. 


299) 






pay 




paid 


paid 


pen (shut up) (see p. 298) 






put 




put 


put 


quit (see p. 


298) 






read 




read 


read 


*reave 




reft, reaved 


reft, reaved 


reeve 




rove 


rove 


rend 




rent 


rent 


rid 




rid 


rid 


ride 




rode 


ridden 



1 Load has loaded in both the past tense and the past participle. Laden is 
sometimes used as the past participle of load. 

2 Lie, "to tell a falsehood, " has lied in both the past tense and the past 
participle. 

3 So both light, "to kindle," and light, "to alight." The verb alight has 
usually alighted in both the past tense and the past participle. 



LISTS OF VERBS 



295 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


ring 




rang 


rung 


rise 




rose 


risen 


*rive 




rived 


riven, rived 


run 




ran 


run 


say 




said 


said 


see 




saw 


seen 


seek 




sought 


sought 


*seethe (transitive) 1 


sod, seethed 


seethed (sodden, adj.) 


sell 




sold 


sold 


send 




sent 


sent 


set 




set 


set 


sew (see p 


. 299) 






shake 




shook 


shaken 


shape (see 


p. 299) 






shave 




shaved 


shaved (shaven, adj.) 


shear (see 


p. 299) 






shed 




shed 


shed 


shine 




shone 


shone 


shoe 




shod 


shod 


shoot 




shot 


shot 


show 




showed 


shown 


shred (see 


p. 298) 






shrink 




shrank 


shrunk (shrunken, adj.) 


* shrive 




shrove, shrived 


shriven, shrived 


shut 




shut 


shut 


sing 




sang 


sung 


sink 




sank 


sunk 


sit 




sat 


sat 


slay 




slew 


slain 


sleep 




slept 


slept 


slide 




slid 


slid, slidden 


sling 




slung 


slung 


slink 




slunk 


slunk 


slit 




slit 


slit 


smell (see 


p. 298) 







1 Seethe, intransitive, has usually seethed in both the past tense and the past 
participle. It is in rather common literary use. 



296 



APPENDIX 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


smite 


smote 


smitten 


sow 


sowed 


sowed, sown 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


speed (see p. 298) 






spell (see p. 299) 






spend 


spent 


spent 


spill (see p. 299) 






spin 


spun 


spun 


spit 


spit 


spit 


split 


split 


split 


spoil (see p. 299) 






spread 


spread 


spread 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


stand 


stood 


stood 


stave 


stove, staved 


stove, staved 


stay (see p. 299) 






steal 


stole 


stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung 


stung 


stink 


stunk 


stunk 


strew 


strewed 


strewn 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


strike 


struck 


struck (stricken, adj.) 1 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


swear 


swore 


sworn 


sweat (see p. 299) 






sweep 


swept 


swept 


swell 


swelled 


swelled, swollen 


swim 


swam 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore 


torn 


tell 


told 


told 



1 Stricken is also used as a participle in a figurative sense. Thus we say, 
"The community was stricken with pestilence," — but " The dog was struck 
with a stick." 



LISTS OF VEEBS 



297 



Present Tense 




Past Tense 


Past Participle 


think 
thrive 






thought 
throve, 


thrived 


thought 
thriven, thrived 


throw 






threw 




thrown 


thrust 






thrust 




thrust 


tread 






trod 




trodden 


wake 






woke, waked 


woke, waked 


wax (grow) (see p. 


299) 








wear 






wore 




worn 


weave 






wove 




woven 


wed (see 

weep 

wet 


p. 299) 




wept 
wet 




wept 
wet 


win 






won 




won 


wind 






wound 




wound 


wring 
write 






wrung 
wrote 




wrung 
written 



Bear, break, drive, get (beget, forget), speak, spin, stink, swear, tear, have 
an archaic past tense in a : bare, brake, drave, gat, spake, etc. 

Beat, beget (forget), bite, break, forsake, hide, ride, shake, speak, weave, 
write, and some other verbs have archaic forms of the past participle like 
those of the past tense. The participles in en, however, are now the ac- 
cepted forms. Chid and trod are common participial forms. 

Begin, drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, spring, swim, often have in poetry a 
w-form (begun, sung, etc.) in the past tense as well as in the past participle. 
This form (though good old English) 1 should be avoided in modern speech. 

Bend, beseech, bet, build, burst, catch, dwell, rend, split, wet, have archaic 
or less usual forms in ed : bended, beseeched, betted, etc. Builded is common 
in the proverbial f f He builded better than he knew." Bursted is common 
as an adjective : ff a bursted bubble." 

Bid, f r to command," has sometimes bid in both the past tense and the 
past participle ; bid, ff to offer money," has these forms regularly. 

Blend, leap, lean, have usually blended, leaped, leaned ; but blent, leapt, 
leant are not uncommon. 

Clothe has commonly clothed ; but clad is common in literary use, and 
is regular in the adjectives well-clad, ill-clad (for which ordinary speech 
has substituted well-dressed, badly or poorly dressed). 

1 It is a remnant of the old past plural. In Anglo-Saxon the principal parts 
of begin were : present, beginne ; past, began ; past plural, begunnon ; past 
participle, begunnen. 



298 APPENDIX 

Dive has dived ; but dove (an old form) is common in America . 

Plead has past tense and past participle pleaded. Plead (pronounced pled) 
is avoided by careful writers and speakers. 

Prove has past tense and past participle proved. The past participle proven 
should be avoided. 

Work has past tense and past participle worked. Wrought in the past tense 
and the past participle is archaic, but is also modern as an adjective (as in 
wrought iron) . 

Some verbs have rare or archaic weak forms alongside of the strong forms ; 
thus digged, shined, past tense and past participle of dig, shine ; showed, past 
participle of show. 

Ate and eaten are preferred to eat (pronounced et) . 

Quoth, "said," is an old strong past tense. The compound bequeath has 
bequeathed only. 

Miscellaneous archaisms are the past tenses sate for sat, trode for trod, spat 
for spit ; also writ for wrote and written, rid for rode and ridden, strewed and 
strown for strewn. 

II 

The following verbs vary between ed and t (d) in the past 
tense and the past participle. In some of them, this variation 
is a mere difference of spelling. In writing, the ed forms are pre- 
ferred in most cases ; in speaking, the t forms are very common. 



bless 


blessed, blest * 


burn 


burned, burnt 2 


curse 


cursed, curst 1 


dare 
dream 


dared (less commonly, durst) 
dreamed, dreamt 


dress 


dressed, drest 


gird 
kneel 


girded, girt 2 
kneeled, knelt 2 


knit 


knit, knitted 2 


learn 


learned, learnt 3 


pen (shut up) 

quit 

shred 


penned, pent 2 
quitted, quit 2 
shredded, shred 2 


smell 


smelled, smelt 2 


speed 


sped, speeded 2 



1 The adjectives are usually pronounced blessed, cursed. Compare also the 
adjective accursed. 

2 Both forms are in good use. 

3 Both forms are in good use. The adjective is pronounced learned. 



LISTS OF VERBS 



299 



spell 


spelled, spelt 


spill 


spilled, spilt 1 


spoil 


spoiled, spoilt 1 


stay 


stayed, staid 


sweat 


sweated, sweat 1 


wed 


wedded (p.p> also wed) 1 



III 

The following verbs have regular ed forms in modern 
prose, but in poetry and the high style sometimes show 
archaic forms. 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


crow 


crowed, crew 


crowed, crown 


freight 


freighted 


freighted, fraught (figurative) 


grave 


graved 


graved, graven 


engrave 


engraved 


engraved, engraven 


mow 


mowed 


mowed, mown 


sew 


sewed 


sewed, sewn 


shape 


shaped 


shaped, shapen 


shear 


sheared, shore 


sheared, shorn 


wax (grow) 


waxed 


waxed, waxen 



IV 

The present tense of may, can, shall, is an old strong past. Hence 
the first and third persons singular are alike : — / may, he may. The 
actual past tenses of these verbs are weak forms : — might, could, 
should. Must is the weak past tense of an obsolete mot, and is almost 
always used as a present tense (§ 292). 

Dare and owe originally belonged to this class. Owe has become 
a regular weak verb, except for the peculiar past tense ought, which 
is used in a present sense (see § 293) ; dare has in the third person 
dare or dares, and in the past dared, more rarely durst. The archaic 
wot "know," past wist, also belongs to this class. Will is inflected 
like shall, having will in the first and third singular, wilt in the second 
singular, and would in the past. 

1 Both forms are in good use. 



300 



APPENDIX 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE 

INDICATIVE MOOD 

Present Tense 



singular 

1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He is. 



PLURAL 

We are. 
You are. 
They are. 



Past Tense 



1. I was. 

2. Thou wast (wert). 

3. He was. 



We were. 
You were. 
They were. 



1. I shall be. 

2. Thou wilt be. 

3. He will be. 



Future Tense 



We shall be. 
You will be. 
They will be. 



Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 

1. I have beeu. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. You have been. 

3. He has been. They have been. 



Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

We had been. 
You had been. 
They had been. 



1. I had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 

3. He had been. 



Future Perfect Tense 



1. I shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 

3. He will have been. 



We shall have been. 
You will have been. 
They will have been. 



CONJUGATION OF TO BE 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 



SINGULAR 

1. If I be. 

2. If thou be. 

3. If he be. 



Present Tense 



If we be. 
If you be. 
If they be. 



301 



1. If I were. 

2. If thou wert. 

3. If he were. 



Past Tense 



If we were. 
If you were. 
If they were. 



Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 

If we have been. 
If you have been. 
If they have been 



1. If I have been. 

2. If thou have been 

3. If he have been. 



Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

If we had been. 
If you had been. 
If they had been. 



1. If I had been. 

2. If thou hadst been 

3. If he had been. 



Imperative Mood. Present. Sing, and PI. Be [thou or you]. 
Infinitive. Present, to be ; Perfect, to have been. 
Participles. Present, being ; Past, been ; Perfect, having been. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO STRIKE 

ACTIVE VOICE 

INDICATIVE MOOD 

Present Tense 



1. I strike. 

2. Thou strikest 

3. He strikes. 



We strike. 
You strike. 
They strike. 



302 



APPENDIX 



SINGULAR 

1. I struck. 

2. Thou struckest. 

3. He struck. 



1. I shall strike. 

2. Thou wilt strike. 

3. He will strike. 

Perfect (or 

1. I have struck. 

2. Thou hast struck. 

3. He has struck. 



Past Tense 

plural 

We struck. 
You struck. 
They struck. 

Future Tense 

We shall strike. 
You will strike. 
They will strike. 

Present Perfect) Tense 

We have struck. 
You have struck. 
They have struck. 



Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

1. I had struck. We had struck. 

2. Thou hadst struck. You had struck. 

3. He had struck. They had struck. 

Future Perfect Tense 

1. I shall have struck. We shall have struck. 

2. Thou wilt have struck. You will have struck. 

3. He will have struck. They will have struck* 



1. If I strike. 

2. If thou strike. 

3. If he strike. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

Present Tense 

If we strike. 
If you strike. 
If they strike. 



1. If I struck. 

2. If thou struck. 

3. If he struck. 



Past Tense 



If we struck. 
If you struck. 
If they struck. 



CONJUGATION OF TO STRIKE 303 

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 

SINGULAR PLURAL 

1. If I have struck. If we have struck. 

2. If thou have struck. • If you have struck. 

3. If he have struck. If they have struck. 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

1. If I had struck. If we had struck. 

2. If thou hadst struck. If you had struck. 

3. If he had struck. If they had struck. 

Imperative Mood. Present. Sing, and PI. Strike [thou or you]. 
Infinitive. Present, to strike ; Perfect, to have struck. 
Participle. Present, striking ; Past, struck; Perfect, having struck. 

PASSIVE VOICE 
INDICATIVE MOOD 

Present Tense 

1. I am struck. We are struck. 

2. Thou art struck. You are struck. 

3. He is struck. They are struck. 

Past Tense 

1. I was struck. We were struck. 

2. Thou wast (or wert) struck. You were struck. 

3. He was struck. They were struck. 

Future Tense 

1. I shall be struck. We shall be struck. 

2. Thou wilt be struck. You will be struck. 

3. He will be struck. They will be struck. 

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 

1. I have been struck. We have been struck. 

2. Thou hast been struck. You have been struck. 

3. He has been struck. They have been struck. 



304 APPENDIX 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

SINGULAR PLURAL 

1. I had been struck. We had been struck. 

2. Thou hadst been strupk. You had been struck. 

3. He had been struck. They had been struck. 

Future Perfect Tense 

1. I shall have been struck. We shall have been struck. 

2. Thou wilt have been struck. You will have been struck. 

3. He will have been struck. They will have been struck 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
Present Tense 

1. If I be struck. If we be struck. 

2. If thou be struck. If you be struck. 

3. If he be struck. * If they be struck. 

Past Tense 

1. If I were struck. If we were struck. 

2. If thou wert struck. If you were struck. 

3. If he were struck. If they were struck. 

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 

1. If I have been struck. If we have been struck. 

2. If thou have been struck. If you have been struck. 

3. If he have been struck. If they have been struck. 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

1. If I had been struck. If we had been struck. 

2. If thou hadst been struck. If you had been struck. 

3. If he had been struck. If they had been struck. 

Imperative Mood. Present. Sing, and PI. Be [thou or you] 
struck. 

Infinitive. Present, to be struck ; Perfect, to have been struck. 

Participles. Present, being struck ; Past, struck ; Perfect, having 
been struck. 



USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 305 



USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 

1. Every sentence begins with a capital letter. 

2. Every line of poetry begins with a capital letter. 

3. The first word of every direct quotation begins with a capital 
letter. 

Note. This rule does not apply to quoted fragments of sentences. 

4. Every proper noun or abbreviation of a proper noun begins 
with a capital letter. 

5. Most adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capital 
letters; as, — American, Indian, Swedish, Spenserian. 

Note. Some adjectives derived from proper nouns have ceased to be 
closely associated in thought with the nouns from which they come, and 
therefore begin with small letters. Thus, — voltaic, galvanic, mesmeric, 
maudlin, stentorian. 

6. Every title attached to the name of a person begins with a 
capital letter. 

Mr. Thomas Smith C. J. Adams, M.D. 

John Wilson, Esq. President Grant 

Miss Allerton Professor Whitney 

Dr. F. E. Wilson Sir Walter Raleigh 

7. In titles of books, etc., the first word, as well as every impor- 
tant word that follows, begins with a capital letter. 

8. The interjection and the pronoun / are always written in 
capital letters. 

9. Personal pronouns referring to the Deity are often capitalized. 

Note. Usage varies: the personal pronouns are commonly capitalized 
when they refer to the Deity, the relatives less frequently. The rule is often 
disregarded altogether when its observance would result in a multitude of 
capitals, as in the Bible and in many hymn books and works of theology. 

10. Common nouns and adjectives often begin with capital letters 
when they designate the topics or main points of definitions or simi- 
lar statements. Such capitals are called emphatic (or topical) capitals. 

Note. Emphatic (or topical) capitals are analogous to capitals in the 
titles of books (see Rule 7) , but their use is not obligatory. They are especially 
common in text-books and other elementary manuals. 



306 APPENDIX 

EULES OF PUNCTUATION 1 

The common marks of punctuation are the period, the interro* 
gation point, the exclamation point, the comma, the semicolon, 
the colon, the dash, marks of parenthesis, and quotation marks. 
The hyphen and the apostrophe may be conveniently treated 
along with marks of punctuation. 



1. The period, the interrogation point, and the exclamation point 
are used at the end of sentences. Every complete sentence must be 
followed by one of these three marks. 

The end of a declarative or an imperative sentence is marked by 
a period. But a declarative or an imperative sentence that is like- 
wise exclamatory may be followed by an exclamation point instead 
of a period. 

The end of a direct question is marked by an interrogation point. 

An exclamatory sentence in the form of an indirect question is f oL 
lowed by an exclamation point ; as, — w How absolute the knave is ! " 

2. A period is used after an abbreviation. 

3. An exclamation point is used after an exclamatory word or 
phrase. 

Note. This rule is not absolute. Most interjections take the exclamation 
point. With other words and with phrases, usage differs ; if strong feeling is 
expressed, the exclamation point is commonly used, but too many such marks 
deface the page. 

II 
The comma is used — 

1. After a noun (or a phrase) of direct address (a vocative nomina- 
tive). Thus, — 

John, tell me the truth. 

Little boy, what is your name ? 

Note. If the noun is exclamatory, an exclamation point may be used 
instead of a comma. 

1 The main rules of punctuation are well fixed and depend on important 
distinctions in sentence structure and consequently in thought. In detail, how- 
ever, there is much variety of usage, and care should be taken not to insist on 
such uniformity in the pupils' practice as is not found in the printed books 
which they use. If young writers can be induced to indicate the ends of their 
sentences properly, much has been accomplished. 



RULES OF PUNCTUATION 307 

2. Before a direct quotation in a sentence. Thus, — ■ 

The cry ran through the ranks, " Are we never to move forward ? " 

Note. When the quotation is long or formal, a colon, or a colon and a 
dash, may be used instead of a comma, especially with the words as follows. 

3. After a direct quotation when this is the subject or the object 
of a following verb. Thus, — 

"They are coming; the attack will be made on the center," said Lord 
Fitzroy Somerset. 

" I see it," was the cool reply of the duke. 

Note. If the quotation ends with an interrogation point or an exclamation 
point, no comma is used. 

4. To separate words, or groups of words, arranged in a coordinate 
series, when these are not connected by and, or, or nor. 

If the conjunction is used to connect the last two members of the 
series but omitted with the others, the comma may be used before 
the conjunction. 

I found two saws, an axe, and a hammer. 

They were so shy, so subtle, and so swift of foot, that it was difficult to come 
at them. 

It would make the reader pity me to tell what odd, misshapen, ugly things 
I made. 

They groaned, they stirred, they all uprose. 

Note 1. Commas may be used even when conjunctions are expressed, if 
the members of the series consist of several words, or if the writer wishes to 
emphasize their distinctness. 

Note 2. Clauses in a series are commonly separated by semicolons unless 
they are short and simple (see pp. 309-310). 

5. To set off words and phrases out of their regular order. Thus, — 

Seated on her accustomed chair, with her usual air of apathy and want of 
interest in what surrounded her, she seemed now and then mechanically to 
resume the motion of twirling her spindle. — Scott. 

6. To separate a long subject from the verb of the predicate. 
Thus,— 

To have passed them over in an historical sketch of my literary life and 
opinions, would have seemed to me like the denial of a debt. — Coleridge. 

7. To set off an appositive noun or an appositive adjective, with 
its modifiers. Thus, — 

I have had the most amusing letter from Hogg, the Ettrick minstrel. 



308 APPENDIX 

There was an impression upon the public mind, natural enough from the 
continually augmenting velocity of the mail, but quite erroneous, that an out- 
side seat on this class of carriages was a post of danger. — De Quincey. 

Note 1. Many participial and other adjective phrases come under this 
head. Thus, — 

The genius, seeing me indulge myself on this melancholy prospect, told me 
I had dwelt long enough upon it. — Addison. 

Note 2. If a noun and its appositive are so closely connected as to form 
one idea, no comma is used. Thus, — 

My friend Jackson lives in San Francisco. 

Note 3. An intensive pronoun (myself, etc.) is not separated by a comma 
from the substantive which it emphasizes. 

Note 4. A series of words or phrases in apposition with a single substan- 
tive is sometimes set off, as a whole, by a comma and a dash. 

8. To set off a subordinate clause, especially one introduced by 
a descriptive relative. Thus, — 

I am going to take a last dinner with a most agreeable family, who have 
been my only neighbors ever since I have lived at Weston. — Cowper. 

Note. No comma is used before a restrictive relative. Thus, — 

I want to know many things which only you can tell me. 

Perhaps I am the only man in England who can boast of such good fortune. 

9. To set off a phrase containing a nominative absolute. Thus, — 

They had some difficulty in passing the ferry at the riverside, the ferryman 
being afraid of them. — Defoe. 

10. To set off however, nevertheless, moreover, etc., and introductory 
phrases like in the first place, on the one hand, etc. 

11. To set off a parenthetical expression. For this purpose com- 
mas, dashes, or marks of parenthesis may be used. 

When the parenthetical matter is brief or closely related to the 
rest of the sentence, it is generally set off by commas. Thus, — 

I exercised a piece of hypocrisy for which, I hope, you will hold me 
excused. — Thackeray. 

When it is longer and more independent, it is generally marked 
off by dashes, or enclosed in marks of parenthesis. The latter are 
less frequently used at present than formerly. 

The connection of the mail with the state and the executive government — 
a connection obvious, but yet not strictly defined — gave to the whole mail 
establishment an official grandeur. — De Quincey. 

Note. Brackets are used to indicate insertions that are not part of the text. 



EULES OF PUNCTUATION 309 

III 

The clauses of a compound sentence may be separated by colons, 
semicolons, or commas. 

1. The colon is used — 

a. To show that the second of two clauses repeats the substance 

of the first in another form, or defines the first as an 
appositive defines a noun. Thus, — 

This was the practice of the Grecian stage. But Terence made an innova- 
tion in the Roman: all his plays have double actions. — Dryden. 

b. To separate two groups of clauses one or both of which con- 

tain a semicolon. Thus, — 

At that time, news such as we had heard might have been long in pene- 
trating so far into the recesses of the mountains ; but now, as you know, the 
approach is easy, and the communication, in summer time, almost hourly: 
nor is this strange, for travellers after pleasure are become not less active, 
and more numerous, than those who formerly left their homes for purposes of 
gain. — Wordsworth. 

Note. The colon is less used now than formerly. The tendency is to use 
a semicolon or to begin a new sentence. 

2. The semicolon is used when the clauses are of the same general 
nature and contribute to the same general effect, especially if one or 
more of them contain commas. Thus, — 

The sky was cloudless ; the sun shone out bright and warm ; the songs of 
birds, and hum of myriads of summer insects filled the air ; and the cottage 
garden, crowded with every rich and beautiful tint, sparkled in the heavy dew 
like beds of glittering jewels. — Dickens. 

3. The comma may be used when the clauses are short and simple 
(see p. 307). 

Note. The choice between colon, semicolon, and comma is determined in 
many cases by the writer's feeling of the closer or the looser connection of the 
ideas expressed by the several clauses, and is to some extent a matter of taste. 

IV 

1. In a complex sentence, the dependent clause is generally sep- 
arated from the main clause by a comma. But when the dependent 
clause is short and the connection close, the comma may be omitted. 

Note. A descriptive relative clause is preceded by a comma, a restrictive 
relative clause is not (see p. 70). 



310 APPENDIX 

2. The clauses of a series, when in the same dependent construc- 
tion, are often separated by semicolons to give more emphasis to each. 
Thus,— 

[Mrs. Battle] was none of your lukewarm gamesters, your half-and-half 
players, who have no objection to take a hand if you want one to make up a 
rubber ; who affirm that they have no pleasure in winning ; that they like to 
win one game and lose another ; that they can while away an hour very agree- 
ably at a card table, but are indifferent whether they play or no; and will 
desire an adversary who has slipped a wrong card, to take it up and play 
another. — Lamb. 

y 

1. A direct quotation is enclosed in quotation marks. 

Note. If the quotation stands by itself and is printed in different type, 
the marks may be omitted. 

2. A quotation within a quotation is usually enclosed in single 
quotation marks. 

3. In a quotation consisting of several paragraphs, quotation marks 
are put at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last. 

Note. For the punctuation before a quotation, see p. 307. 

4. When a book, poem, or the like, is referred to, the title may be 
enclosed in quotation marks or italicized. 

YI 

1. Sudden changes in thought and feeling or breaks in speech are 
indicated by dashes. Thus, — 

Eh! — what — why — upon my life, and so it is — Charley, my boy, so it 's 
you, is it ? — Lever. 

2. Parenthetical expressions may be set off by dashes (see p. 308). 

3. A colon, or colon and dash, may precede an enumeration, a direct 
quotation, or a statement formally introduced, — especially with as 
follows, namely, and the like. Before an enumeration a comma and a 
dash may be used. Thus, — 

There are eight parts of speech : — nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, ad- 
verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Or — 
There are eight parts of speech, — nouns, pronouns, etc. 

4. The dash is sometimes used to strengthen a comma (as in the 
last paragraph but one). 



EULES OF SYNTAX 311 

VII 

1. The apostrophe is used — 

a. To mark the omission of a letter or letters in contractions. 

b. As a sign of the possessive or genitive. 

c. To indicate the plural of letters, signs, etc. 

2. The hyphen is used — 

a. When the parts of a word are separated in writing. 

b. Between the parts of some compound words. (See the 

dictionary in each case.) 



EULES OP SYNTAX 

1. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case (p. 41). 

2. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or 
defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called 
a predicate nominative (p. 41). 

3. A substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person 
directly, and not connected with any verb, is called a vocative. 

A vocative is in the nominative case, and is often called a nomina- 
tive by direct address or a vocative nominative (p. 42). 

4. A substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory 
nominative or a nominative of exclamation (p. 42). 

5. A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time, 
or circumstances of an action. 

This is called the absolute construction. 

The substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative 
absolute (p. 144). 

6. The possessive case denotes ownership or possession (p. 43). 

7. The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case (p. 47). 

8. A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb 
is called its direct object, and is said to be in the objective case (p. 48). 

9. A verb of asking sometimes takes two direct objects, one de- 
noting the person and the other the thing (p. 50). 

10. Verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking may 
take two objects referring to the same person or thing. 



312 APPENDIX 

The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which com- 
pletes the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objective 
(pp.50, 111). 

11. Some verbs of giving, telling, refusing, and the like, may take 
two objects, a direct object and an indirect object. 

The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or 
toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the 
predicate (p. 50). 

12. A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object 
a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own. 

A noun in this construction is called the cognate object of the verb 
and is in the objective case (p. 52). 

13. A noun, or a group of words consisting of a noun and its modi- 
fiers, may be used adverbially. Such a noun is called an adverbial 
objective (p. 53). 

14. An appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it 
limits (p. 42). 

15. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, 
and person (p. 55). 

16. Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses 
by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause. 

This substantive is the antecedent of the relative (p. 66). 

A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, num- 
ber, and person. 

The case of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its anteced- 
ent, but depends on the construction of its own clause (p. 68). 

17. A relative pronoun in the objective case is often omitted (p. 69). 

18. The relative pronoun what is equivalent to that which, and has 
a double construction : — (1) the construction of the omitted or implied 
antecedent that; (2) the construction of the relative which (p. 71). 

19. The compound relative pronouns may include or imply their 
own antecedents and hence may have a double construction (p. 72). 

The compound relatives are sometimes used without an antecedent 
expressed or implied (p. 72). 

20. An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it de- 
scribes or limits (pp. 5, 75). 

21. Adjectives maybe classified, according to their position in the 
sentence, as attributive, appositive, and predicate adjectives (p. 76). 



EULES OF SYNTAX 313 

1. An attributive adjective is closely attached to its noun and 
regularly precedes it. 

2. An appositive adjective is added to its noun to explain it, like 
a noun in apposition. 

3. A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate 
verb, but describes or limits the subject. 

For the use of an adjective as predicate objective, see § 488. 

22. The comparative degree, not the superlative, is used in compar- 
ing two persons or things. 

The superlative is used in comparing one person or thing with two 
or more (p. 88). 

23. Relative adverbs introduce subordinate clauses and are similar 
in their use to relative pronouns (p. 86). 

24. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person (p. 97). 

25. A compound subject with and usually takes a verb in the plural 
number (p. 100). 

26. A compound subject with or or nor takes a verb in the singular 
number if the substantives are singular (p. 100). 

27. Nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense commonly 
take a verb in the singular number (p. 101). 

28. Collective nouns take sometimes a singular and sometimes a 
plural verb. 

When the persons or things denoted are thought of as individuals, 
the plural should be used. When the collection is regarded as a unit, 
the singular should be used (p. 101). 

29. A verb is in the active voice when it represents the subject as 
the doer of an act (p. 107). 

30. A verb is in the passive voice when it represents the subject as 
the receiver or the product of an action (p. 107). 

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive, 
and the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adver- 
bial phrase modifying the predicate verb (p. 110). 

31. When a verb takes both a direct and an indirect object, one of 
the two is often retained after the passive, the other becoming the 
subject (p. 112). 

32. The indicative is the mood of simple assertion or interrogation, 
but it is used in other constructions also (p. 115). 

33. The imperative is the mood of command or request (p. 115). 



314 APPENDIX 

34. The subject of an imperative is seldom expressed unless it is 
emphatic. 

The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative : as, — 
You go, You read (p. 117). 

35. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions 
of wish, condition, and the like (pp. 115, 118). 

For particulars and examples, see pp. 119-123. 
For modal auxiliaries, see pp. 124-132. 

36. An infinitive, with or without a complement or modifiers, may 
be used as the subject of a sentence, as a predicate nominative, or as 
an appositive (pp. 134, 135). 

37. An infinitive may be used as the object of the prepositions but, 
except, about, (p. 135). 

38. The infinitive may be used as a nominative of exclamation 
(p. 136). 

39. An infinitive may modify a verb by completing its meaning, or 
by expressing the purpose of the action (p. 137). 

40. An infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or 
as an adverbial modifier of an adjective. 

In this use the infinitive is said to depend on the word which it 
modifies (p. 136). 

41. A kind of clause, consisting of a substantive in the objective 
case followed by an infinitive, may be used as the object of certain 
verbs. 

Such clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is 
said to be the subject of the infinitive. 

The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case. 

Infinitive clauses are used (1) after verbs of wishing, commanding, 
advising, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of believing, declaring, 
and perceiving (p. 138). 

An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition for. 

An infinitive clause with for may be used as a subject, as a predi- 
cate nominative, or as the object of a preposition (pp. 138-139). 

42. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which 
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state 
in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive (pp. 12, 140). 

43. A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it de- 
scribes or limits (pp. 12, 142). 



EULES OF SYNTAX 315 

44. A participle should not be used without some substantive to 
which it may belong (p. 142). 

45. An infinitive or a participle, like any other verb-form, may 
take an object if its meaning allows (pp. 134, 143). 

46. Infinitives and participles, like other verb-forms, may be modi- 
fied by adverbs, adverbial phrases, or adverbial clauses (pp. 134, 142). 

47. Verbal (or participial) nouns in -ing have the form of present 
participles, but the construction of nouns (p. 145). 

48. Verbal nouns in -ing have certain properties of the verb (p. 146). 

1. Verbal nouns in -ing may take a direct or an indirect object if 
their meaning allows. 

2. A verbal noun in -ing may take an adverbial modifier. 

But verbal nouns in -ing, like other nouns, may be modified by 
adjectives. 

49. A noun in -ing may be used as an adjective, or as the adjective 
element in a compound noun (p. 146). 

50. The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object 
and is in the objective case (p. 148). 

51. A coordinate conjunction connects words or groups of words 
that are independent of each other (p. 151). 

52. A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause with 
the clause on which it depends (p. 151). 

53. Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the 
phrases or sentences in which they stand. 

Sometimes, however, a substantive is connected with an interjec- 
tion by means of a preposition (p. 155). 



316 APPENDIX 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

English is a member of the great Indo-European Family of 
languages, which is so called because it includes well-nigh all the 
languages of Europe and the most important of those found in India. 
Within this family, English belongs to the Teutonic (or Germanic) 
Group, which contains also German, Dutch, the Scandinavian tongues 
(Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish), and some others. 

English of the oldest period is called either Anglo-Saxon or Old 
English. This was the speech of certain piratical tribes whose home 
was in northern Germany, on the eastern and southern shores of the 
North Sea, but who invaded Britain about a.d. 450, and subdued 
the Celtic inhabitants of the island in a series of fierce wars. The 
most considerable of the invading tribes were the Angles and the 
Saxons. Their dominion was well assured by the beginning of 
the seventh century, and their language, which they usually called 
w English " (that is, M the tongue of the Angles "), gradually spread 
through England and most of Scotland. In Wales, however, the 
native Britons have maintained their own Celtic speech to the 
present day ; and in the Scottish Highlands, Gaelic — which is akin 
to Welsh and practically identical with the native language of 
Ireland — is still extensively used. 

At the time of the invasion, the Angles and Saxons were heathen, 
and the Britons, who had been for four centuries under the sway of 
the Roman Empire, were Christians, and much more highly civilized 
than their conquerors. Indeed, they had adopted many features of 
Roman culture, and Latin was spoken to some extent, at least in 
the larger towns. By the end of the seventh century, however, the 
Anglo-Saxons also had embraced Christianity and had made remark- 
able advances in literature and learning. The language of the 
Britons exerted but slight influence upon that of the Anglo-Saxons. 
The Celtic words in English are few in number, and most of them 
were borrowed in comparatively recent times. 

The Norman Conquest (1066) marks a highly significant date in 
the history of our language. The Normans were a Scandinavian 
tribe who had been in possession of Normandy (in northern France) 
for about a hundred and fifty years. They had abandoned their 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 317 

native tongue, and spoke a dialect of French. From 1066 to about 
the year 1400, two languages were therefore common in England, — 
English, which was employed by the vast majority of the people, 
and French, which was the language of the court and the higher 
orders. French, however, was never a serious rival of English for 
supremacy in the island. It was the speech of a class, not of the 
nation, and its use gradually died out, except as an accomplishment. 
By the time of Chaucer (who was born about 1340 and died in 1400), 
it was clear that the English tongue was henceforth to be regarded 
as the only natural language for Englishmen, whether they were of 
Anglo-Saxon or of Norman origin. 

Still, the Norman conquest had a profound influence upon Eng- 
lish. It is not true — though often asserted — that the multitude of 
French words which our language contains were derived from the 
Norman dialect. Comparatively few of them came into English until 
after 1300, when Normandy had been lost to the English crown for 
a hundred years. Since 1300 we have borrowed freely — not from 
Norman, however, but from Central (or Parisian) French, which had 
become the standard to which the English descendants of the Nor- 
mans endeavored to conform. The effect of the Conquest, then, was 
not to fill English with Norman terms. It was rather to bring Eng- 
land into close social and literary relations with France, and thus 
to facilitate the adoption of words and constructions from Central 
French. 

Further, since literature was in the middle ages dependent in the 
main upon private patronage, the existence of a ruling class whose 
interest was in French, discouraged the maintenance of any national 
or general standard of English composition. Every English writer 
had recourse to his local dialect, and one dialect was felt to be as 
good as another. 

By 1350, however, the dialect of London and the vicinity had come, 
apparently, to be regarded as somewhat more elegant and polished 
than the others. All that was needed was the appearance of some 
writer of supreme genius to whom this dialect should be native. 
Chaucer was such a writer, for he was born in London. To be 
sure, Chaucer did not "make modern English." None the less, 
he was a powerful agent in settling the language. Since his time, 
at all events, the fact of a "standard of literary usage" has been 



318 APPENDIX 

undisputed. Dialects still exist, but they are not regarded as authori- 
tative. Educated speakers and writers of English, the world over, 
use the language with substantial uniformity. 1 

Meantime, however, the English of the Anglo-Saxons had under- 
gone many changes before Chaucer was born. Most of its inflections 
had been lost, and still others have been discarded since. Further, 
there had. been extensive borrowing from French and Latin, and this 
continued throughout the fourteenth century. The habit, once 
formed, has proved lasting. Our vocabulary has received contributions 
from many languages, and is still receiving them. Greek may be 
mentioned in particular as the source of many words, especially in 
the various departments of science. But French and Latin remain 
the chief foreign elements in English. 

In the following extract from Scott, most of the words printed in 
Roman type are of Anglo-Saxon origin, whereas the italicized words 
are derived from Latin or French. 

It was not until evening was nearly closed that Ivanhoe was restored 
to consciousness of his situation. He awoke from a broken slumber, under 
the confused impressions which are naturally attendant on the recovery 
from a state of insensibility. He was una&Ze for some time to recall exactly 
to memory the circumstances which had preceded his fall in the lists, or to 
make out any connected chain of the events in which he had been engaged 
upon the yesterday. A sense of wounds and injury, joined to great weak- 
ness and exhaustion, was mingled with the recollection of blows dealt and 
received, of steeds rushing upon each other, overthrowing and overthrown, 
of shouts and clashing of artns, and all the heady tumult of a confused 
fight. An effort to draw aside the curtain of his couch was in some degree 
successful, although rendered difficult by the pain of his wound. 

English has also adopted a good many Scandinavian words, though 
they form no such proportion of its vocabulary as French or Latin. 
Danish and Norwegian pirates began to harry the coast in the eighth 
century. Permanent settlements followed, as well as wars of con- 
quest, and for about thirty years (1013-1042) a Danish family occu- 
pied the English throne. These events explain the Scandinavian 
element in our language. 

1 It is not meant, of course, that an American or Australian of the present 
day should exert himself to imitate the speech of a modern Londoner. The 
point is, that what we now call " English " is, in most respects, the direct de- 
scendant of the London dialect of the fourteenth century. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 319 

Despite the freedom with which English has adopted words from 
abroad, it is still essentially a Germanic speech. Its structure is still 
the native structure. The borrowings have enriched its vocabulary, 
but have had comparatively little effect upon its syntax. The foreign 
words have been naturalized, and their presence in no wise inter- 
feres with the unity and general consistency of the English language. 
It is a strange error to regard English as a combination of Anglo- 
Saxon and Norman French. As for the loss or decay of inflections, 
that is not due to a mixture of dialects. It is a natural tendency, 
which may be seen, for example, in Dutch and Danish, though there 
was no Norman Conquest in Holland or Denmark. The loss, indeed, 
is really a gain, for it is progress in the direction of simplicity. 

The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period comes down to about a 
century, or a century and a half, after the Norman Conquest. Its 
extreme limit may be set at 1200. The period from 1200 to 1500 
is usually known as the Middle English Period. From 1500 to the 
present time may be regarded as the Modern Period, though within 
these boundaries English has changed enormously in pronunciation 
and in vocabulary, very largely in syntax, and to some extent in in- 
flection. The almost complete abandonment of the subjunctive in 
common speech is one of the latest of these changes. This, too, is 
in the direction of simplicity. 

The people of Great Britain have long been famous as travellers, 
explorers, and colonizers. Their language, once the dialect (or dia- 
lects) of a handful of Germanic adventurers, has spread to all parts 
of the world, so that now it is not merely the language of England, 
but,tb a considerable extent, that of Scotland, Ireland, North America, 
India, Australasia, and South Africa. In this vast area, numerous va- 
rieties of pronunciation and of idiom of course occur, but, on the 
whole, the uniformity of the language is surprisingly well preserved. 



INDEX 



[References are to pages ; f. signifies " and following page" 
" and following pages."] 



ff. signifies 



A for on {a-fishing), 147, 149. 

A or an, 77 ff. ; distributive, 79. 

About, with infinitive, 105, 135. 

Absolute construction, 144. See 
Nominative. 

Absolute use of transitive verbs, 92. 

Abstract nouns, 29 f . 

Accusative, 52. 

Action, nouns in -ing, 145 ff. 

Active voice, 107 ff. See Passive. 

Adjective, 5, 75 ff. ; descriptive and 
definitive, . 5, 75 f . ; proper, 75; 
compound, 75 ; pronominal, 76 
(cf . 62 ff.) ; attributive, apposi- 
tive, predicate, 76 f . ; articles, 
77 ff.; comparison, 79 ff., 88 f . ; 
numerals, 89 f. ; noun as adjec- 
tive, adjective as noun, 9, 78 ; 
participle as, 143 ; adjective in 
exclamations, 155 f. ; as modifier 
of subject, 192 f . See Adjective 
pronoun, Predicate adjective. 

Adjective clauses, 20, 66, 86, 157 f. ; 
place or time, 163 f. ; as modifiers 
of subject, 192 f . ; of comple- 
ment, 206. 

Adjective phrases, 16, 157; com- 
parison of, 89; as modifiers of 
subject, 192 f.-; as complements, 
204; as modifiers of modifiers, 
207. 

Adjective pronouns, 62 ff. : demon 1 
strative, 62 ff. ; indefinite, 64 f. 

Adverb, defined, 7; classification, 
forms, and use, 83 ff . ; relative or 
conjunctive, 86 ; interrogative, 
86 ; comparison, 87 ff . ; numeral, 



89 f. ; in exclamations, 155 f. ; as 
modifier, 196 f., 206, 208. 

Adverbial clauses, 20 f., 86, 158 f. ; 
place or time, 163 f . ; causal, 164 ; 
concessive, 164 f. ; purpose or re- 
sult, 166 f. ; conditional, 167 ff. ; 
comparison, degree, manner, 173; 
indirect question, 180 ; as modi- 
fiers of predicate, 196 f. ; of com- 
plement, 206 ; of modifiers, 207 f . 

Adverbial objective, 53; clause as, 
158 f. ; as modifier, 198. 

Adverbial phrases, 16, 53, 142, 158 ; 
numeral, 90 ; as modifiers of 
predicate, 196 f., 198 ff. ; of com- 
plement, 206 ; of modifiers, 207 f . 

Advising, verbs of, with infinitive 
clause, 138. 

Affirmative, 85. 

A-fishing, etc., 147, 149. 

After, preposition, 148; relative 
adverb, 86, 157, 164. 

Agreement, of predicate nomina- 
tive with subject, 41, 57 f . ; of 
appositive, 42, 47, 53, 57 ; of pro- 
noun with antecedent, 55, 65 ; of 
relative with antecedent, 68, 102 ; 
of verb with subject, 97, 100 ff. 

All, 65. 

Alternative conditions, 168; ques- 
tions, 179. 

Although. /See Though. 

Analysis, 183 ff. ; structure of sen- 
tences, 183 ff. ; analysis, with 
models, 188 ff. ; simple sentences, 

188 ; compound, 188 f. ; complex, 

189 f . ; compound complex, 190 ; 



321 



322 



INDEX 



modifiers, 191 ff. ; complements, 
200 ff.; modifiers of complements 
and of modifiers, 205 ff . ; inde- 
pendent elements, 209 ; combina- 
tions of clauses, 210 ff . ; elliptical 
sentences, 224 ff. See further 
under these several heads. 

Anglo-Saxon, xv, 316 f . 

Animals, names of, gender, 32 ; 
pronouns, 69. 

Another, 64 f. 

Antecedent of pronoun, 4 ; agree- 
ment, 55, 65, 68, 102 ; unexpressed, 
71 ff. ; what, 71 ; compound rela- 
tives, 72 f . 

Any, anything, 64 f . 

Apodosis, 168. 

Apostrophe, 43 ff., 56, 311. 

Appear, with predicate nominative 
or adjective, 6f., 76, 93. 

Apposition, 42. See Appositive. 

Appositive, case of, 42, 47, 53, 57 ; 
with possessive, 47 ; infinitive as, 
134 f . ; clause as, 159 ff., 167, 174, 
180, 196 ; appositive as modifier, 
195 f ., 207. 

Appositive adjective, 76. 

Appositive phrase, 195. 

Archaisms, xvii. See Old. 

Articles, 77 ff. ; generic, 77 ; re- 
peated, 78 ; with verbal noun, 147. 

As, relative pronoun, 67 ; relative 
adverb, 86, 153 ; conjunction, 
153 ; in concession, 165 ; in clauses 
of degree, 173. 

As if, as though, 122, 153, 173 ; as to, 
with infinitive, 167. 

Asking, verb of, two objects, 50 ; 
retained object, 112 ; with in- 
direct question, 179 ff. (cf. 160). 

Assertion, 2, 5, 13. 

Attribute. See Predicate adjec- 
tive, Predicate objective. 

Attributive adjective, 76. 

Aught, naught, 65. 

Authorship, 43. 

Auxiliary verbs, 6, 91 ; in future, 
102 ff. ; in compound tenses, 106 ; 
in passive, 108 ff. ; in progres- 
sive form, 113 f. ; in emphatic 



form, 114 ; replacing subjunc- 
tive, 123 ; in potential verb- 
phrases, 124 ff . 

Be, 6 f ., 93 ; conjugation, 99, 118 f ., 
300 f . ; auxiliary of passive, 
108 ff. ; of progressive form, 113 j 
ellipsis of, 114, 144, 164 f ., 169, 
224 f . ; predicate pronoun after, 
139. See Predicate nominative. 

Become, with predicate nominative 
or adjective, 6f., 76, 93. 

Before, preposition, 148 ; relative 
adverb, 86, 157, 163 f.; with 
subjunctive, 122 ; with should, 
130. 

Believing, verbs of, with infinitive 
clause, 138. 

Biblical style. See Solemn. 

Bid, with infinitive, 138. 

Both, pronoun, 64. 

Both . . . and, 15, 153. 

But, adverb, 135. 

But, coordinate conjunction, 152 ; 
subordinate, 153 f. ; elliptical 
constructions, 154. 

But, preposition, 148; with infini- 
tive, 135. 

Calling, verbs of, two objects, 50 ; 
predicate nominative after pas- 
sive, 111. 

Can, could, 124 ff., 299. 

Capital letters, 27 ff., 75; rules, 305. 

Cardinal numerals, 89 f . 

Case, 40 ff. ; nominative, 40 ff. ; 
possessive, 43 ff. ; objective, 47 ff.; 
of appositives, 42, 47, 53, 57. 
See Pronouns. 

Cause, clauses of, 164 ; nominative 
absolute, 144. 

Chaucer, xv, 43, 49, 85, 317 f. 

Choosing, verbs of, two objects, 
50 ; predicate nominative after 
passive, 111. 

Clauses, independent and subordi- 
nate, 16 ff. ; as parts of speech, 
19 ff., 157 ff.; infinitive, 137 ff. ; 
simple, compound, complex, 
210 ff.; combination of, 210 ff. 



INDEX 



323 



See Adjective, Adverbial, Noun, 
Infinitive clause. 

Clauses, subordinate, classified ac- 
cording to meaning, 163 ff . ; place 
and time, 163 f . ; cause, 164 ; 
concession, 164 f . ; purpose and 
result, 166f.; conditional, 167ff. ; 
comparison and manner, 173 ; 
indirect discourse, 173 ff. ; in- 
direct questions, 179 ff. 

Cognate object, 52 ; it as, 58 ; as 
modifier, 199. 

Collective nouns, 29 f. ; verbs with, 
101 f. 

Colloquial forms and constructions, 
xvi, 38, 57 ff., 61, 69, 100, 112, 
120, 149, 155. 

Colon, 309 f. 

Color, adjectives of, 84. 

Combinations of clauses, 210 ff. 

Come, have (or am) come, 107. 

Comma, 70, 306 ff. 

Command, with shall or will, 105, 
118; as condition, 169; verbs 
of, with infinitive clause, 138 ; 
with noun clause, 160, 167. See 
Imperative. 

Common gender, 31. 

Common nouns, 27 ff. ; personifica- 
tion, 28 f . 

Comparative and superlative, of 
adjectives, 79 ff., 88 f . ; of ad- 
verbs, 87 ff. ; use, 88 f. ; com- 
parative with the, 86. 

Comparison, clauses of, 173 . 

Comparison of adjectives, 79 ff., 
88 f . ; of adverbs, 87 ff. ; use of, 
88 f. 

Complementary infinitive, 137. 

Complementary object, 50. See 
Predicate objective. 

Complements. See Object, Predi- 
cate objective, Predicate nomi- 
native, Predicate adjective. 

Complements, classified, 200 ff. ; 
direct object, 201 ; predicate ob- 
jective, 202 ; predicate nomina- 
tive, 202 f . ; predicate adjective, 
203 f. 

Complements, modifiers of, 205 f. 



Complete predicate. See Predi- 
cate. 
Complete predication, 200. 
Complete subject. See Subject. 
Complete tenses, 106 f . 
Complete verbs, 200. 
Complex clauses, 18, 187, 211 f., 

215 f., 219 ff. 

Complex compound. See Com- 
pound complex. 

Complex sentences, 17 ff., 186 ; 
analyzed, 189 f . ; varieties of, 

216 ff. 

Compound adjectives, 75. 
Compound clauses, 151, 186, 210 ff. 
Compound complex sentences, 18, 

187, 215 f.; analyzed, 190, 222 f. 
Compound conjunctions, 153. 
Compound nouns, 30, 146 f.; plural, 

36 ; possessive, 46 f . 
Compound personal pronouns, 

60 ff . ; intensive and reflexive, 

61 f.; relatives, 72 f. 
Compound predicate, 15, 184 f., 

212 f. 

Compound sentences, 17 ff., 185; 
analyzed, 188 f . ; elaboration of, 

213 f. 

Compound subject, 15, 184 f., 212 f.; 
agreement, 100 f. 

Compound tenses, 106 f . 

Concerning, 142, 149. 

Concession, moods in, 120 ff. ; should 
and would in, 123, 131 ; clauses 
of, 164 ff. 

Conclusion, 168. 

Conditional clauses and sentences, 
moods in, 120 ff., 170 ff. ; forms 
and meaning, 167 ff. ; classifica- 
tion, 169 ff. ; past and present, 

170 f . ; non-committal and con- 
trary to fact, 170 f . ; future, 

171 f. ; shall, will, should, would, 
130 f. 

Conjugation, 25, 94 ff. ; indicative 
present and past, 98 f. ; future, 
102 ; active and passive, 108 ff ; 
progressive, 113 f . ; potential 
verb-phrases, 124 f . ; tables of, 
300 ff. 



324 



INDEX 



Conjunction, defined, 8 ; classifica- 
tion and use, 151 ff. ; coordinate 
or coordinating, 151 f. ; subor- 
dinate or subordinating, 151, 
153 f . ; correlative, 153 f. ; ad- 
verb, preposition, and, 152 f. ; 
and adverb, 150. 

Conjunctive adverbs and pronouns. 
See Eelative. 

Considering, 142, 149. 

Construction, xiv, 25 ff . 

Contractions: it's, 56; I'M, we HI, 
104 ; let 's, 120 ; may nH, ought n't, 
126; I'd, we'd, 130. 

Contrary to fact, conditions, 170 f. 

Coordinate (coordinating) conjunc- 
tions, 151 f. 

Coordinate clauses, 17 ff., 185 ff., 
210 ff. 

Coordination in sentences, 210 ff. 
See Coordinate. 

Copula. See Be. 

Copulative verbs, 6f., 76, 93. See 
Be. 

Correlative conjunctions, 153 f. 

Could. See Can. 

Bare, 137, 299. 

Dash, 310. 

Dative, 52, 60. 

Declarative sentences, 2. 

Declaring, verbs of, with infinitive 
clause, 138. 

Declension of nouns, 40 ; of per- 
sonal pronouns, 55 f. ; of self- 
pronouns, 60 ; of demonstratives, 
63 ; of relatives, 67 ; of compound 
relatives, 72 ; of interrogatives, 
73. 

Defective verbs, 299. 

Definite article, 77 ff. 

Definitive adjectives, 5, 75 f. 

Degree, adverbs of, 84 ; clauses of, 
173. See Comparison. 

Deity, words for the, 305. 

Demonstrative pronouns and ad- 
jectives, 62 ff. 

Dependent. See Subordinate. 

Descriptive adjectives, 4, 75 ; rela- 
tives, 70 f . 



Desiring, verbs of, with infini- 
tive, 137 ; with noun clause, 160, 
167. 

Bid. See Do. 

Direct address, nominative in, 42 ; 
independent element, 209. 

Direct discourse, 174 ff. 

Direct object. See Object. 

Direct quotations, 173 f . ; ques- 
tions, 179. 

Bo, did, in questions, 114 ; in em- 
phatic verb-phrases, 114 ; in im- 
perative, 117 ; as substitute for 
some other verb, 114. 

Double comparison, 88 ; condi- 
tions, 168. 

Boubting, verb of, with indirect 
question, 179 (cf. 160). 

Each, each other, 64 f . 

Editorial we, 57. 

Either, 64 ; either . . . or, 15, 153. 

Elder, eldest, 81. 

Elements. See Subject, Predicate, 
Modifiers, Complements, Inde- 
pendent. 

Ellipsis, understood words, etc., 3, 
47, 58, 63, 69, 71, 114, 117, 119 f., 
121 f., 133, 144, 149, 153 f., 155, 
160, 164 f., 169, 173, 175, 224 ff. 

Elliptical sentences, 224 ff. 

'era, 57. 

Emphasis, superlative of, 88. 

Emphatic verb-phrases, 114 ; im- 
perative, 117. 

-en, plural ending of nouns, 
35 ; old plural ending of verbs, 
99. 

Endings, in inflection, 25 ; gender 
33 ; number, 34 ff . ; case, 40 
possessive, 43 f . ; comparison 
80 ff., 87 ; adverbs, 83 ff. ; tense 
95 f. ; personal endings, 97 f . 

English language, xi ff ; history of 
316 ff. 

Errors of speech, 37, 45, 56, 58, 60, 
62, 64 f., 74, 77, 88, 102 ff., 126, 
128 ff., 133 ff., 139, 147. 

Even if, 153, 164 f . 

Every, everybody, everything, 64 f. 



INDEX 



325 



Except, with infinitive, 135. 

Exclamation, nominative in, 42, 57, 
156 ; objective me, 60 ; infinitive, 
136 ; various parts of speech, 
155 f. ; phrases, 155 f. ; clauses, 
169 ; as independent element, 
209. See Interjection. 

Exclamation point, 155, 306. 

Exclamatory sentences, 2 f ., 74 ; 
phrases, 155 f . ; expressions, 
155 f., 209. See Exclamation, 
Interjection. 

Exercises, 227-290. See Table of 
Contents, v. 

Exhortations, 120. 

Expectation, subjunctive, 122 f . ; 
should, 130. 

Expletive. See It, There. 

Extent, possessive of, 46. 

Eyne, 35. 

Feel, with predicate adjective, 77 ; 

with infinitive, 136. 
Eeminine. See Gender. 
Few, 65. 

Eigures, plural of, 36. 
For, conjunction, 152. 
For, preposition, 148, 152 ; with 

infinitive, 135 ; with infinitive 

clause, 139. 
Foreign plurals, 37. 
Fractional parts, 90. 
Future conditions, 171 f. 
Future perfect tense, 106. 
Future tense, 94, 102 ff. See Shall, 

will. 

Gender, 31 ff . ; of nouns and pro- 
nouns, 31 ; special rules for 
nouns, 32 ff . ; of pronouns, 56 ; 
of relatives, 67 ff. See Personi- 
fication. 

Generally speaking, 142. 

Generic article, 77. 

Genitive. See Possessive. 

Gerund, 146. 

Giving, verbs of, direct and indirect 
object, 50 ; retained object, 112. 

Go. See Motion. 

Going to, 105. 



Grammar, nature and principles 

of, xi ff. 
Granted that, 168. 

Habitual action, 127. 
Had rather, etc., 123 ; had to, 126. 
Half, 102. 

Have, had, 6, 95 ; auxiliary in com- 
pound tenses, 106 ff., 141. 
He, 56 ; for he or she, 65. 
Hear, with infinitive, 136. 
Hem, old pronoun, 57. 
His, as neuter, 56. 
Ho sen, 35. 
How, 86. 

However, 152 ; in concessions, 165, 
Hyphen, 30, 311. 

I'd, we'd, 130. 

Idioms, nature of, xv. 

If, 153 ; in conditions, 168 ff. ; ih 
wishes, 169 ; in indirect ques- 
tions, 179. 

Ill, 81, 87. 

I HI, we'll, 104. 

Imperative mood, 116 ff. ; in ex- 
clamations, 156 ; as a condition, 
169. 

Imperative sentences, 2f., 116 ff. ; 
subject of, 2, 117. 

Impersonal it, 58. See It. 

In case that, 153 ; in order that, 153, 
166 ; in order to, 167. 

Incomplete predication, 200; verbs, 
200. 

Indefinite article, 77 ff. ; pronouns 
and adjectives, 64 f. ; nouns, 65 ; 
relatives (whoever, etc.), 72 f . 

Independent clauses, 17 f. See 
Clauses. 

Independent elements, 209. 

Independent participles, 142. 

Indicative mood, 115 f. ; variety 
of use, 116 ; in statements and 
questions of fact, 116 ; in com- 
mands, 105, 118 ; in concessions, 
121 ; in conditions, 170, 172. 

Indirect discourse, 173 ff. ; tenses 
in, 175; passive, 175 f. ; shall, 
should, will, would, 111 f. 



326 



INDEX 



Indirect object, 50 f. ; retained 
with passive, 112 ; of participial 
nouns, 146 ; as modifier, 199. 

Indirect questions, 179 ff. ; infini- 
tive in, 181 ; subjunctive in, 181 ; 
shall, should, will, would, 182. 

Indirect quotations, 173 ff. 

Infinitive, 11 ff ., 132 ff. ; forms, 107, 
133 ; object and modifiers, 134 ; 
uses, 134 ff. ; as noun, 11 ff., 134 ; 
as object, 135 ; as nominative of 
exclamation, 136 ; as modifier, 
136 f., 194, 197 f . ; with see, hear, 
feel, 136 ; complementary, 137 ; 
of purpose, 137, 167 ; in verb- 
phrases, 12 ; in future, 102 ; in 
emphatic forms, 114, 117 ; in 
potential verb-phrases, 124 ff. ; 
with ought, tenses, 126 , in indi- 
rect questions, 181 ; in verb- 
phrases, see Future, Future 
perfect, Emphatic, Potential. 

Infinitive clause, 137 ff. ; as object, 
138 f .; as subject, 139 ; predicate 
pronoun in, 139 ; expressing pur- 
pose, 167 ; indirect discourse, 
175. 

Infinitive phrase, 194. 

Inflection, nature and function of, 
xiiif., 25; summary of, 26; of 
nouns, 30 ff . ; of pronouns, 55 ff . ; 
of adjectives, 79 ff. ; of verbs, 
94 ff . ; lists of verb-forms, 291 ff. 

-ing, verbal nouns in, 145 ff. See 
Participial nouns. 

Intensive pronouns, 61 f . 

Interjections, defined, 8 ; use, 155f . ; 
as independent elements, 209. 

Interrogation point, 306. 

Interrogative adverbs, 86 ; with 
clauses, 157 ; in indirect ques- 
tions, 179 ; with infinitive, 181. 

Interrogative pronouns, 73 f . ; as 
adjectives, 74 ; with prepositions, 
150 ; with clauses, 157 ; in in- 
direct questions, 179 ff. ; with 
infinitive, 181. 

Interrogative sentences, 2 f . ; order 
in, 3 ; do, did in, 114 ; direct 
and indirect questions, 179 ff. 



Intransitive verbs, 48 f ., 92 f . ; 
voice, 111 ; in passive with prep- 
osition, 111. 

Inverted order, 3, 85, 121 f ., 161. 

Irregular verbs, 95, 99; partici- 
ples, 141; lists, 291 ff. 

Is. See Be. 

It, 56 ; impersonal, 58 ; expletive. 
58, 135, 161, 175 f.; cognate ob- 
ject, 58. 

Kind, sort, 64. 

Kine, 35. 

Knowing, verbs of, indirect dis- 
course, 174 ; indirect question, 
179. 

Language, nature of, xi ff. ; Eng^ 
lish, 316 ff. 

Less, least, 81, 87. 

Lest, with subjunctive, 122 ; pur- 
pose, 122, 166. 

Let, with infinitive, 138 ; let us, 120. 

Letters, plural of, 36. 

Like, should like, 129. 

Like, with objective, 52. 

Limiting adjectives, 5. See Defini- 
tive. 

Look, with predicate adjective, 77. 

Main clause, 17 f. ; analysis, 184 ff., 
213 ff. ; compound, 216 f . 

Majesty, plural of, 57. 

Make, with infinitive, 138. 

Making, verbs of, two objects, 50 ; 
predicate nominative after pas- 
sive, 111. 

-man, words ending in, plural of, 35. 

Manner, adverbs of, 83 ; clauses 
of, 173. 

Many, 65. 

Masculine. See Gender. 

May, might, auxiliary, 120 ff . ; re- 
placing subjunctive, 123 ; form, 
299. 

Measure or extent, possessive of, 46. 

Meseems, methinks, 60. 

Might, auxiliary, 123 ff. ; replacing 
subjunctive, 123 ; might better, 
123. See May. 



INDEX 



327 



Modal auxiliaries, use and mean- 
ing, 124 ff. 

Mode. See Mood. 

Models for parsing, analysis, 54, 
74, 82, 188 ff., 243, 250 f ., 262, 
270. See Exercises. 

Modifiers, 7 ; classified, 191 ff. ; of 
subject, 192 ff. ; adjectives, ad- 
jective phrases, adjective clauses, 
192 f . ; participles, 193 f . ; infini- 
tives, 194 ; possessives, 195 ; ap- 
positives, 195 f .; of predicate, 196 
ff. ; adverbs, adverbial phrases, 
adverbial clauses, 196 f . ; infini- 
tives, 197 f . ; adverbial objec- 
tives, 198 ; nominative absolute, 
198 f . ; indirect object, 199 ; cog- 
nate object, 199. 

Modifiers of complements, 205 f . 

Modifiers of modifiers, 207 f . 

Mood, 115 ff. ; indicative, 115 f . ; 
imperative, 116 ff. ; subjunctive, 
118 ff.; potential, 124. See Indic- 
ative, Subjunctive, etc. 

More, most, in comparison, 81, 87 ff. 

-most, superlative suffix, 82. 

Motion, verbs of, with have or be, 
107 ; ellipsis, 225. 

Must, auxiliary, 124 ff., 299. 

My, mine, 59. 

Naming, verbs of, two objects, 50 ; 
predicate nominative after pas- 
sive, 111. 

Naught, not, 65. 

Near, with objective, 52. 

Negative, neither, 64, 152 ; none, 
64 ; not, 65 ; no, 85 ; statements 
and questions, 114 ; commands, 
117 ; purpose or result, 166 f. ; 
condition, 168. 

Neither, pronoun, 64 ; conjunction, 
with nor, 15, 152 ff. ; number 
with, 100. 

Neuter. See Gender. 

Next, 52, 82, 87. 

Nigh, next, 82. 

No, yes, 85. 

Nominative case, 41 f . ; subject, 41; 
predicate, 41 ; direct address 



(vocative), 42 ; in exclamation, 
42 ; absolute, 144, 198 f . 

Non-committal conditions, 170 f. 

None, 64. 

Nor, neither . . . nor, number with, 
100. 

Not, 65. 

Notwithstanding, preposition or 
conjunction, 152, 154. 

Noun, defined, 4 ; classification, 
27 ft . ; common and proper, 27 ff . ; 
abstract and collective, 29 f . ; 
compound, 30, 36, 47, 146 f. ; in- 
flection, 30 ff. ; gender, 31 ff. ; 
number, 34 ff. ; person, 39 ; case, 
40 ff. ; numeral, 89 f. ; verbal 
(participial), 145 ff. See Infini- 
tive. 

Noun clauses, 20, 159 ff. ; construc- 
tion, as subject, object, etc., 
159 ff. ; purpose and result, 166 f . ; 
indirect discourse, 174 ff. ; indi- 
rect questions, 180 ff . ; analysis, 
190 ; as complement, 201 ff. ; 
direct object, 201 ; predicate 
objective, 202 ; predicate nomi- 
native, 203. 

Noun-phrases, 16, 28 ; possessive 
of, 47; verbal noun-phrases, 
146. 

Number, a (or the), 101. 

Number of nouns, 34 ff . ; of pro- 
nouns, 56 f., 60, 63 ff., 67 f., 72 ; 
of verbs, 97 ff., 100 ff.; agree- 

- ment in, 55, 65, 68, 97, 100 ff. 

Numerals, 89 f. 

O or oh, 8, 155 ; in wishes, 155. 

Object, of preposition, 8, 47, 148 ; 
of verb, direct, 48 ff . ; predicate 
objective, 50; indirect, 50f. ; for 
whom, 51; cognate, 52; retained, 
112 ; of infinitive, 134 ; of verbal 
(participial) noun, 146 f.; infini- 
tive as, 135 ; infinitive clause as, 
138 f.; noun-clause as, 159 ff., 
167, 174 ff., 180 f. See Comple- 
ments, Modifiers. 

Object clauses. See Noun clauses. 

Objective attribute, 50. 



328 



INDEX 



Objective case, 47 ff. ; of service, 
51 f. ; adverbial, 53 ; in apposi- 
tion, 53; of pronouns, 55 £., 60, 
63, 67, 69, 72, 73 f. ; in exclama- 
tion, 60 ; subject of infinitive, 
138 f. See Object. 

Objective complement, 50. See 
Predicate objective. 

Obsolete words, etc., xvi f . See Old. 

Of mine, 47, 59. 

0/-phrase, 45. 

Old or poetical forms and construc- 
tions, 28 f ., 32, 35, 39, 43, 45, 52, 
56 ff., 59 ff., 62 f., 67, 69, 73, 78, 
82, 84 f., 88, 90, 95 ff., 99, 100, 
105, 114, 116 f., 118, 120, 122, 
124, 126, 135, 149, 154, 225, 293, 
297 ff. 

On condition that, 168. 

One, one's, one's self, 60, 65 ; one 
another, 64 f. 

Or, either . . . or, 15, 153 f.; num- 
ber with or, nor, 100. 

Order. See Inverted. 

Orders, will in, 105. See Command. 

Ordinal numerals, 89 f. 

Other, another, 64 f. 

Ought, 126 f. 

Our self, 60. 

Owe, ought, 126, 299. 

Own, 61. 

Pains, 101. 

Parsing, models for, 54, 74, 82, 
243, 250 f., 262, 270. 

Part, portion, 102. 

Participial nouns, 145 ff. ; object of, 
146 f. ; modifiers of, 146 ; as ad- 
jective, 146 f. ; with article, 147. 

Participial phrase, 194. 

Participles, 11 f., 140 ff.; present, 
past, perfect, 12, 106 f., 140 f.; 
constructions, 142 ff. ; object and 
modifiers of, 142 f.; as preposi- 
tions, 142, 149 ; as adjectives, 
143 ; with nominative absolute, 
145; as modifiers, 193 f., 205. 

Parts of speech, defined, 3 ff . ; same 
word as different, 9 ff . ; substi- 
tutes for, 15 ff. (see Phrases, 



Clauses) ; inflection and syntax, 
25 ff . See Noun, Pronoun, etc. 

Passive voice, 107 ff. ; form of, 
108 ff. ; use of, 110 ff. ; predicate 
nominative with, 111 ; retained 
object with, 112 ; in progressive 
form, 114 ; in imperative, 117 ; 
in subjunctive, 119 ; intransitive 
verbs with preposition, 111 ; pas- 
sive distinguished from be with 
participle used as adjective, 143 ; 
clause as retained object, 160 ; 
indirect discourse, 175 f. 

Past conditions, 169 ff . ; non-com- 
mittal, 170 f.; contrary to fact, 
171. 

Past participle, 106, 140 f. ; as 
predicate adjective, 143. 

Past perfect tense, 106, 109 ; sub- 
junctive, 121 f., 171 ; progressive, 
125; in conditions, 121, 170f. ; 
in indirect discourse, 175. 

Past tense, 94 ff . ; personal endings, 
97 ff. ; passive, 108 ; progressive, 
113 f.; emphatic, 114; subjunc- 
tive, 118, 121 ff., 171 f. ; indica- 
tive and subjunctive in condi- 
tions, 170 ff.; in indirect dis- 
course, 175. 

Pending, 142, 149. 

Per, per cent, etc., 79, 149. 

Perceiving, verbs of, with infinitive 
clause, 138 ; indirect discourse, 
174; indirect question, 179. 

Perfect infinitive, 107, 133; with 
ought, 126; participle, 107, 140f. 

Perfect (or present perfect) tense, 
106. 

Period, 306. 

Permission, 125 f., 129. 

Person of substantives, 39 ; of pro- 
nouns, 55 ff . ; of relatives, 68 ; 
of verbs, 97 ff., 100 ff. 

Personal construction, 176. 

Personal endings, 97 f. 

Personal pronouns, 55 ff . ; inflec- 
tion, 55 ff . ; gender and number, 
56 f . ; case, 57 ff.; sd/-pronouns, 
60 ff . ; as predicate nominative, 
41. 



INDEX 



329 



Personification, 28 f., 32. 

Phrases, 16; kinds of, 16 (see Noun- 
phrases, Adjective phrases, Ad- 
verbial phrases, Verb-phrases) ; 
as prepositions, 149 ; as conjunc- 
tions, 153 ; exclamatory, 155 ; in 
analysis, 191 ff. ; as modifiers of 
subject, 192 f.; of predicate, 
196 f.; as complements, 204; as 
modifiers of complements, 205 f. ; 
of other modifiers, 207 f. See 
Progressive, Emphatic, Poten- 
tial, Appositive, Infinitive, Par- 
ticipial, Prepositional, Verbal 
noun-phrases. 

Place and time, adverbs of, 83 ff. ; 
clauses of, 163 f. 

Pluperfect tense, 106, 109 ; sub- 

, junctive, 121 f., 171; progres- 
sive, 125 ; in conditions, 121, 
170 f . ; in indirect discourse, 175. 

Plural of nouns, 34 ff . ; irregular, 
35 ff . ; of compounds, 36 ; of for- 
eign nouns, 37 ; of proper names 
and titles, 35, 38 ; of possessive, 
43 f . ; of pronouns, 56 f., 60, 
62 ff.; of relatives, 67 f . ; of 
verbs, 97 ff.; plural of majesty, 
57. 

Poetical forms and constructions, 
xvii. See Old. 

Portion, part, 102. 

Positive degree, 79, 87. 

Possessive case of nouns, 43 ff. ; use, 

45 ff . ; of measure, 46 ; of com- 
pound nouns and of phrases, 

46 f . ; apposition with, 47; of 
personal pronouns, 55 f., 59; of 
definite pronouns, 65 ; of rela- 
tives, 67, 69, 72 ; of interroga- 
tes, 73 ; possessive nouns modi- 
fied, 207. 

Possessive modifiers, 195, 205, 207. 
Possessive pronouns, 55 f., 59 ; my, 

mine, etc., use of, 59 ; one's, 65 ; 

whose, 67, 69, 72, 73. 
Potential verb-phrases, 124 ff . ; 

mood, 124 ff. 
Pray, 58. 
Prayers, subjunctive, 119 f. 



Predicate, 2 ; inverted order, 3, 85^ 
121 f ., 161 ; simple and complete, 
14f ., 183f . ; compound, 15, 184f ., 
212 f.; possessive in, 59; analy- 
sis, 183 ff. ; modifiers of, 196 ff . ; 
complements, 200 ff. See Com- 
plements, Modifiers. 

Predicate adjective, 76 f., 93 ; par- 
ticiple as, 143; analysis, 203 f.; 
as complement, 203 f. ; phrase as, 
204 ; modifiers of, 206. 

Predicate nominative, 41, 49, 93 ; 
of pronouns, 58 ; after passive, 
111 ; infinitive as, 134 f. ; infini- 
tive clause as, 139 ; noun clause 
as, 159 f., 174, 180; in analysis, 
202 f. ; as complement, 202 f.; 
modifiers of, 205 f. 

Predicate objective, 50, 111 ; ad- 
jective as, 50 ; in analysis, 202 ; as 
complement, 202 ; modified, 205. 

Predicate pronoun after to be, 139. 

Predication, complete and incom- 
plete, 200. 

Preposition, defined, 8 ; list and 
uses, 148 ff.; object of, 8, 47, 
150 ff . ; with intransitive verb, 
111 ; with passive, 111 ; phrase 
used as, 149 ; at end of clause, 
149 ; following the object, 149 ; 
omitted, 149 ; participle as, 149 ; 
infinitive as object of, 135; clause 
as object of, 161, 180. 

Prepositional phrases, 16, 148. 

Present conditions, 170 ff.; non- 
committal, 170f.; contrary to 
fact, 171. 

Present infinitive, 133 ; with ought. 
126. 

Present participle, 12, 140 f.; in 
verb-phrases, 13, 113f., 130f. ; 
with nominative absolute, 144. 

Present perfect tense, 106. 

Present tense form, 94 ; personal 
endings, 97 f . ; conjugation, 98 f. ; 
in future sense, 105 ; in future 
conditions, 172; passive, 108 ; 
progressive, 113 f.; emphatic, 
114; imperative, 116f.; subjunc- 
tive, 118 f., 120 ff.; indicative) 



330 



INDEX 



and subjunctive in conditions, 
170 f. ; participle, 12, 144 ff. ; in- 
finitive, 133. 

Preterite, 94. See Past. 

Preterite-present verbs, 299. 

Principal clause. See Main clause. 

Principal parts, 107 ; list, 291 ff. 

Prithee, 58. 

Progressive verb-phrases, 113 f . ; 
in subjunctive, 119. 

Prohibition, 117. 

Pronominal adjectives. See Adjec- 
tive pronouns ; Demonstrative, 
Indefinite, Kelative, Interroga- 
tive. 

Pronoun defined, 4 ; antecedent of, 
4 ; classification, forms, and uses, 
55 ff. ; predicate nominative, 41, 
58. See Personal, Adjective, De- 
monstrative, Indefinite, Kelative, 
Interrogative, Intensive, Reflex- 
ive, Eeciprocal, Gender. 

Pronoun, predicate, after to be, 139. 

Proper nouns, 27 ff. ; plural, 35, 38 ; 
possessive, 44 ; adjectives, 75. 

Prophecy, shall, 105. 

Protasis, 168. 

Provided (that), 153, 168. 

Punctuation, rules of, 306 ff . 

Purpose, subjunctive and indica- 
tive, 122 f . ; infinitive of, 137, 
167 ; clauses of, 166 f. ; infinitive 
clause, 167. 

Questions, 3 f . ; shall and will in, 
102 ff. ; should and would in, 
127 ff. ; do, did, 114 ; may, 126 ; 
as condition, 169 ; direct and in- 
direct, 179 ff. See Interrogative. 

Quotation marks, 310. 

Quotations, direct and indirect, 
173 ff. 

Bather, 87 ; had rather, 123. 

Reciprocal pronouns, 64 f . 

Reflexive pronouns, 61 ; simple 
personal pronouns as, 61. 

Refusing, verbs of, direct and indi- 
rect object, 50 ; retained object, 
112. 



Regular verbs, 95 ff. ; participles, 
141. 

Relative adjectives, 73. 

Relative adverbs, 86 ; with sub- 
junctive, 122 ; introducing clauses, 
157 f.; place and time, 164; con- 
cession, 165 ; conditions, 169. 

Relative pronouns, 66 ff. ; forms, 
67 ; gender, 67 ff. ; agreement, 
68, 102; case, 68 f., 139; omitted, 
69 ; descriptive and restrictive, 
70 f. ; what, 71 ; compound rela- 
tives, 72 f. ; relatives introducing 
clauses, 66, 157 f . ; place and 
time, 163 f . ; concession, 131, 
165; condition, 131, 169. 

Restrictive relatives, 70 f. 

Result, clause of, 166 f . ; infinitive, 
167 ; negative, 167. 

Retained object, 112 ; clause as, 
160. 

Royal we, 57, 60. 

Same (the) as, 67. 

Saying. See Telling. 

See, with infinitive, 136. 

Seem, with predicate nominative 
or adjective, 6 f ., 76, 93 ; it seems 
that, 176. 

^/-pronouns, 60 ff. 

Semicolon, 309 f . 

Sentences, 1 ff. ; kinds of, 2 f . ; 
parts of speech in, 3 ff., 13 ff. ; 
essential elements in, 2, 14 ; 
simple and complete subject 
and predicate, 14 f. ; clauses in, 
16 ff . ; simple, compound, com- 
plex, 17 ff. ; compound complex, 
18. 

Sentences, analysis, 183 ff.; struc- 
ture and elements, 183 ; of simple 
sentences, 184 f . ; of compound, 
185; of complex, 186; of com- 
pound and complex clauses, 
186 f. ; of compound complex sen- 
tences, 187 ; models for analysis 
of simple, compound, complex, 
compound complex sentences, 
.188 ff. ; modifiers, 191 ff. ; com- 
plements, 200 ff. ; modifiers of 



INDEX 



331 



complements and of modifiers, 
205 ff. ; independent elements, 
209 ; combinations of clauses 
making sentences of various 
forms, 210 ff. ; special complica- 
tions, 220 ff . ; elliptical sentences, 
224 ff. See Subject, Compound, 
Complex, Modifiers, etc. 

Sequence of tenses, 175, 179. 

Service, objective of, 51 f . 

Several, 65. 

Shakspere, forms and constructions 
in, 35, 39, 47, 56, 57, 59, 60, 62, 
63, 67, 69, 88, 90, 126, 149, 154, 
166, 169, 171, 225. 

Shall and will, 102 ff. ; in assertions 
and questions, 102 ff. ; in subor- 
dinate clauses, 130 ff. ; indirect 
discourse, 177 f. ; indirect ques- 
tions, 182; forms, 299. See 
Should. 

Ship, gender, 32. 

Shoon, 35. 

Should and would, in simple sen- 
tences and independent clauses, 
127 ff. ; in subordinate clauses, 
130 ff. ; in indirect discourse, 
177 f. ; in indirect questions,- 
182. See Shall. 

Should and would, special senses, 
126 f . ; replacing subjunctive, 123 ; 
in clauses of purpose, 130 ; con- 
cessions, 131; in conditional sen- 
tences, 131, 171 f . 

Signs, plural of, 36. 

Simple clauses. See Clauses. 

Simple sentences, 17 ff., 184 f. ; 
analyzed, 188 f. ; elaboration of, 
212 f . See Sentences. 

Since, adverb, preposition, con- 
junction, 86, 153. 

Singular. See Number. 

Smell, with predicate adjective, 
77. 

So as to, 167 ; so that, 153, 166. 

Solemn (or Biblical) style, xvii, 
56 f., 60, 69, 90, 95, 98 f., 105, 
117, 120, 122, 172. 

Some, 64 ; somewhat, 65. 

Sort, kind, 64. 



Sound, with predicate adjective, 
77. 

Split infinitive, 134. 

Still, yet, adverbs or conjunctions, 
152. 

Strong verbs, 95, 99 ; participles, 
141 ; list, 291 ff. 

Style and grammar, xvif. 

Subject, 2 ; inverted order, 3 ; 
omitted, 3, 58, 114, 117, 121, 
164 f., 169, 224 ff. ; simple and 
complete, 14 f . ; compound, 15, 
184 f . ; infinitive as, 11, 134 f . ; 
clause as, 20, 139, 159 f., 174 f., 
180, 190 ; case, 41 ; agreement 
with verb, 97, 100 ff. ; modifiers 
of, 192 ff. ; subject of infinitive, 
138. See Predicate nominative. 

Subject and predicate, 2, 13 ff., 
183 ff., 191 ff. 

Subj ect complement, 41 . See Predi- 
cate nominative. 

Subjunctive mood, 115 f ., 118 ff. ; 
forms, 118 f . ; uses, 119 ff. ; in 
wishes, etc., 119 f.; concessions, 
120 f. ; conditions, 120 ff., 170 ff. ; 
clauses of purpose or expectation, 
122, 166 ; with as if, 122, 173 ; in 
indirect questions, 181 ; auxilia- 
ries replacing subjunctive, 123. 

Subordinate clauses, 17 ff. ; as parts 
of speech, 19 ff., 157 ff. ; analysis, 
186 ff., 189 ff. ; combinations of, 
210 ; variety of use, 216 ff. ; spe- 
cial complications, 220 ff. See 
Noun, Adjective, Adverbial, In- ' 
dicative, Subjunctive. 

Subordinate clauses, meanings of, 
163 ff.; place and time, 163 f.; 
cause, 164; concession, 164 f. ;• 
purpose and result, 166 f. ; condi- 
tional, 167 ff . ; comparison and 
manner, 173 ; indirect discourse, 
173 ff. ; indirect questions, 179 ff. 

Subordinate (or subordinating) con- 
junctions, 151, 153 f., 157. 

Substantive, 4. See Noun, Pronoun. 

Substantive clauses. See Noun 
clauses. 

Such, 64 ; such . . . as, 67. 



832 



INDEX 



Superlative of emphasis, 88. See 

Comparison. 
Suppose, supposing, 168. 
Syntax, xiv, 25 ff . ; summary of 

rules, 311 ff. 

Taste, with predicate adjective, 77. 

Telling, verbs of, direct and in- 
direct object, 50 ; retained ob- 
ject, 112 ; object clause, 160 ; 
indirect discourse, 174. 

Tense, 94 ff . See Present, Past, Fu- 
ture, Compound tenses. 

Tenses, use in conditions, 121, 
170 ff.; with ought, 126; in in- 
direct discourse, 175, 177 ff.; in 
indirect questions, 179, 182. 

Termination. See Endings. 

Than, 87 ; case after, 173 ; clauses, 
173. 

That, conjunction with subordi- 
nate clause, 20f., 132, 137, 153, 
157 ff., 160 ff. ; in clauses of pur- 
pose, 122 f., 130, 166 f. ; result, 
166f.; indirect discourse, 174ff.; 
omitted, 153, 160, 175, 225. 

That, demonstrative, 62 ff . ; rela- 
tive, 67 ff.; omitted, 69. 

The, article, 77 ff. ; abbreviated to 
ye, 57 ; the which, 67 ; adverb 
with comparative, 86. 

Then, adverb or conjunction, 152. 

There, expletive, 85. 

Thereof, therewith, etc., 60. 

They, indefinite use, 57. 

Thinking, verbs of, two objects, 50 ; 
predicate nominative after pas- 
sive, 111 ; object clause, 160 ; 
indirect discourse, 174 ; indirect 
' question, 179. 

This, these, 62 ff . 

Thou, ye, you, 56 f . 

Though, although, 21 ; mood after, 
120 f. See Concession. 

Till, until, relative adverb, 86 ; with 
subjunctive, 122 f . ; with should, 
123, 130 ; preposition, 149. 

Time, adverbs of, 83 ; clauses of, 
163 f . ; nominative absolute, 
144. 



Titles, plural, 38. 

To, with infinitive, 11, 132 ff . ; 
standing for infinitive, 133 ; ex- 
pressing purpose, 167 ; to let, 
136 ; to the end that, 166. 

Too . . . to, 167. 

Transition, 152. 

Transitive verbs, 48 ff., 92 ; used 
absolutely, 92 ; passive use of, 
110 ff. See Object. 

Unless, 121 ff., 168. 
Unlike, objective with, 52. 
Until See Till 
Usage and grammar, xv ff . 

Verb, 5 ff. ; inflection and syntax, 
91 ff. ; classification, 91 ff. ; in- 
flection, 94 ff., 102 ff. ; person 
and number, 97 ff. ; agreement 
with subject, 97, 100 ff. ; voice, 
107 ff. ; progressive form, 113 f. ; 
emphatic form, 114 ; mood, 
115 ff. ; potential verb-phrases, 
124 ff. ; infinitive, 11 f ., 132 ff. ; 
participles, 11 f ., 140 ff. ; lists 
of verbs, 291 ff. See Predicate, 
Transitive, Tense, etc. 

Verbal noun in -ing, 145 ff. See 
Participial nouns. 

Verbal noun-phrases, 146. 

Verb-phrases, 5, 16, 91 ; to supply 
inflection, see Future, Complete 
tenses, Passive, Progressive, Po- 
tential, Subjunctive. 

Vocal organs, xi. 

Vocabulary of English, 318 f . 

Vocative (direct address), nomina- 
tive, 42 ; as independent element, 
209. 

Voice, 107 ff. See Passive. 

We, indefinite use, 57 ; royal and 
editorial we, 57. 

Weak verbs, 95 ff., 98 f. ; partici- 
ples, 141 ; lists, 291 ff. 

We'd, 130. 

Well, 81, 87. 

We HI, 104. 

Were to, 172. 



IXDEX 



333 



What, relative, 71 ; double con- 
struction, 71, 73 ; as adjective, 
73 ; interrogative, 73 f. ; as ad- 
jective, 74 ; in exclamatory sen- 
tences, 74 ; interjection, 74. 

Whatever, whatsoever, 72 f. ; in con- 
cession, 165 ; in conditions, 169. 

Whatso, 73. 

When, whenever, 86 ; in conditions, 
169. 

Whence, 86. 

Where, wherever, 86. 

Whereof, wherefrom, etc., 69. 

Whether, whether . . . or. 153, 168, 
179. 

Which, relative, 67 ff. ; gender, 
67 ff. ; for who, whom, 69 ; as ad- 
jective, 73 ; the which, 67 ; inter- 
rogative, 73 ; as adjective, 74. 

Whichever, 72 f . 

While, noun, adverb, conjunction, 
86, 153. 

Whither, 86. 

Who, whose, whom, relative, 66 ff. ; 
gender, 67 ff. ; interrogative, 
73 f., 150. 



Whoever, whosoever, whoso, 72 f . ; 

in concession, 165 ; in condition, 

169. 
Why, 86, 179. 
Will, in orders, 105 ; in future, 

see Shall. 
Wish, subjunctive in, 119 f., 123; 
# may, 125 f . ; verbs of, with in- 
finitive or infinitive clause, 137 f. ; 

with object clause, 160, 167 ; O 

in a wish, 155 ; if, 169. 
Words, nature and use of, xi ff. 
Wot, wist, 299. 
Would, in wishes, 120 ; habitual 

action, 127 ; would better (rather), 

123. See Should. 
Written and spoken language, xi ff . 

Ye, old uses, 57 ; abbreviation, 

57. 
Yes, no, 85. 
Yet, still, adverbs or conjunctions, 

152. 
Yon, yond, yonder, 63. 
You and thou, 56 f. ; indefinite you, 

57. 




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